MARKETING MANAGEMENT Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

MARKETING MANAGEMENT - Assignment Example Market segmentation has always been an area where a company needs to work a lot. Market segmentation is therefore defined as the procedure which a company follows to identify different segments of user inside the market place who could be possibly targeted by using different products, services and other marketing programs. Now a day’s goods and services are strictly developed by considering the wants and needs of a customer. Subsequently marketing segmentation is considered as an essential and central element of marketing for a company (Kamakura & Wedel, 2000, p.3). Now in the context of UK regional airlines segmentation can play a major role for identifying the specific business segments as well as the consumer segments and also to boost the total number of footfalls. There are two bases of market segmentation i.e. observable segmentation and unobservable segmentation. An observable segmentation include geographic, cultural, demographic and socio economic segmentation. While on the other hand unobservable segmentation includes psychographic, values and personality segmentation (Businessmate, n.d.). Among the available types of segmentation the company can make use of demographic segmentation and geographical segmentation. The company needs to target small and medium business ventures and average income group individual consumers. Therefore the company may strictly employ demographic segmentation in respect of statistics and income level. Now to target the business houses the company can offer them special prices and discounts for frequent travellers and bulk bookings. After making the segmentation and targeting the intended customers it becomes very much vital for the company to position it in the market. As positioning can be defined as how a company positions its product in the minds of the consumers (Ries, 2003, p.3). In this context it is recommended that the company must position itself as the carries which offers high facilities but at low cost. T his will surely attract bulk customers if the positioning can be properly carried out. Benefits of Segmentation It has been described that Regional Airlines will target mainly individual consumers with average income level and small and medium business ventures. The benefits which will be availed by the company for taking up this particular course of action are illustrated below. The company will be able to focus on the particular segments which will allow the marketing team to initiate different types marketing events and programs for the target group. This will also ensure in utilizing the allotted budget for marketing in the correct place. Since it becomes practically impossible to cater to each and every individual it’s always better to make segmentation (Themanager, n.d.). Therefore rather than going for a mass target the company can cater to a specific segment more efficiently. In such case the company can hugely cut down its promotional cost, there will be no need of u sing all the available promotional platforms, only which fits the requirement can be used. For example to target the business consumers the company can make use of business magazines apart from advertising in television. This will also help the company to undertake market expansion. Once a set of loyal customers are generated, the company can further expand domestically as well as in the other parts of

Self Determination Theory in Teaching

Self Determination Theory in Teaching In the United Kingdom it is compulsory for all children to receive schooling until the age of sixteen. In the present educational climate it is foreseeable that this age limit could be extended to eighteen. In light of this, it is my firm belief that a teacher must not only have well-grounded subject knowledge and an intimate understanding of relevant pedagogy, but an effective teacher must also be able to motivate students to learn. However, to be a proficient motivator one has to understand the rudiments of what it is that drives and motivates people to act. This has long been the endeavor of Motivation Theory a well-established and active area of research within the field of psychology. It has clear links to many of the other social sciences, including education. Setting the scene As a trainee teacher I have a keen (somewhat vested) interest in understanding theories of motivation. In this review I will be placing an emphasis on Self-Determination Theory, its sub-theories, and ultimately its realization in the form of Sudbury schools. However, I would first like to develop the necessary historical context within which to discuss it. Between the 1930s and 1950s Motivation Theory was dominated by Clark Hulls work on biological Drive-Reduction. This was one of the earliest attempts to systematize and formalize our understanding of motivation. Hull posited that humans seek to maintain a state of homeostasis. He said that we have drives which arise in response to biological needs such as hunger and thirst. These drives motivate us to act in order to reduce their effects and hence maintain homeostasis. Hulls work was gradually superseded as researchers abandoned biological theories for cognitive alternatives. 1952 saw the publishing of Robert W. Whites Motivation Reconsidered: The Concept of Competence. In this article White first conceived the idea of competence motivation which one might describe in laymans terms as people like playing to their strengths. White said that we are motivated towards behaviour that makes us feel competent, knowledgeable or powerful. The fifties also saw the emergence of Incentive theories as pioneered by the likes of Berrhus Frederic Skinner. These focused principally on research into operant conditioning, behavior modification through reinforcement, punishment and extinction (Skinner, 1938). Skinners theories were notably criticized by none other than renowned intellectual Noam Chomsky (Chomsky, 1967). In his review Chomsky undermined the scientific credibility of Skinners methodology, claiming that his work was merely an emulation of science. In 1956 Leon Festinger published When Prophesy Fails, now regarded as a seminal book for its development of the cognitive dissonance theory of motivation. Festinger, building on Piagets concept of disequilibrium, believed that humans are motivated to reduce dissonance to such an extent that one can change anothers attitudes by altering their behavior or vice versa. This has since been a highly successful and extensively studied theory of motivation. Until this point psychology had been split into two competing paradigms; behavioural (subject-object relationships) and Freudian (psychoanalysis). In the 1960s a new generation of researchers came to the fore, rejecting this apparent dichotomy and spawning the so-called Third Force in psychology, focusing on human aspects such as fulfillment, self-actualization and meaning; concepts which so far had been omitted from most leading theories. The key player during this era was Abraham Maslow. He had rejected Freudian analysis as he perceived its focus to be pointed far too much towards sex and violence. He also rejected behaviourist approaches because they were overly impersonal and failed to address what he termed higher motives of human beings. Maslows ideas about motivation are best illustrated by his eponymous hierarchy of needs; a tiered pyramidal structure. The bottom tier of the hierarchy is comprised of biological needs; above those are security needs, relationship needs, self-e steem needs and finally self-actualization needs at the top. Maslow believed that when the majority of needs within a tier are met, the individual will become motivated to satiate the needs within the tier above. This process continues until the individual is finally motivated towards self-actualization (Maslow, 1943). Maslows theory has proven difficult to test experimentally, and although conceivably true, it fails to provide satisfactory explanations for many exceptional cases, and has duly received significant criticism (Wahba Bridgewell, 1976). Self-Determination Theory So far I have highlighted but a few of the salient developments within Motivation Theory from the mid twentieth century. I would now like to limit my focus to one in particular, Self-Determination Theory (SDT). SDT is a relatively contemporary meta-theory of motivation; its origins can be found in the early works of Richard Ryan and Edward Deci at the University of Rochester (Deci, 1971). At the time of its conception Ryan and Deci realized that aspects of competing humanistic, behavioural, cognitive and post-modern theories could be unified into a contiguous whole; forming what eventually became SDT (Deci Ryan, 2002). The name Self-Determination Theory is now regarded as an umbrella term for a broader collection of five sub-theories, each of which I shall review in turn. Much of SDT has evolved from initial studies into the dualistic notions of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation e.g. Lepper et al. (1973). SDT places emphasis on humans natural intrinsic tendencies to explore, develo p, learn and create without reward. This attitude is in stark contrast to the operant ideas purported by Skinner, who insisted that all behaviour is motivated by reward (Skinner, 1953). An assumption of SDT is that humans have an innate tendency to assimilate their ongoing experiences into a unified and integrated sense of self (Horn, 2008, p.134). The increasing level of interest in SDT is self-evident given the large number of meta-analyses, reviews and special issues within the research literature (Hagger Chatzisarantis, 2008). Classifying motivation For over thirty years researchers have differentiated motives into two broad categories, which ultimately reflect the locus of motivation. Intrinsically motivated behaviour is when an individual wants to act of their own volition, because a task is interesting or challenging, or purely for the sake of it. It is internally-sourced motivation, inherently connected with the individuals attitudes and sense of self. Extrinsically motivated behaviour is a response to an external factor such as a promise of reward or threat of punishment; often misaligned with the attitudes of the individual (Ryan Deci, 2000). Intrinsic motivation has proven to be of great interest to educational psychologists, as it can be catalyzed or undermined by parent and teacher practices, and fosters improved learning and creativity (Ryan Stiller, 1991). My own sentiments are in accordance with Ryan and Decis views on intrinsic motivation with an attitude of willingness that reflects an inner acceptance of the value or utility of a task the extrinsic goal is self-endorsed and thus adopted with a sense of volition. (Ryan Deci, 2000). The process of accepting an external motive and internalizing it as a new source intrinsic motivation is referred to as integration. It is no secret that teachers often have to deliver material which is either boring or dull. Therefore, knowledge of strategies for encouraging integration would clearly be advantageous when motivating students. Cognitive Evaluation Theory The first sub-theory of SDT is called Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET). This examines how social, environmental and other external factors influence intrinsic motivation by affecting an individuals sense of competence and autonomy. CET offers three prepositions for explaining the impact of these influences. Firstly, changes in intrinsic motivation towards an activity are coupled to an individuals perceived competence at that activity (Deci Ryan, 1985a). Secondly, external attempts to regulate an individuals behaviour can result in increased, decreased or unaltered intrinsic motivation (Deci Ryan, 1985a). Thirdly, influences which an individual perceives as threatening or promoting their sense of autonomy will respectively diminish or develop their intrinsic motivation (Deci Ryan, 1985a). There has been a long and arduously fought debate as to whether or not teachers should employ rewards (extrinsic motivation) in order to encourage their students. Kruglanski et al. (1972) found that rewarding students for participating in a game resulted in a notable decrease in their intrinsic motivation. Similarly, it has been suggested that verbal praise can condition students into behaviour which has the specific intent of elliciting praise, undermining their intrinsic motivation (Deci et al., 2001). The effects of increased perceived autonomy have been studied by Goudas et al. (1995), who found that when students were given more control over the direction of their lessons their intrinsic motivation increased. Similar results where found by Mandigo Holt (2000) who claimed that perceived autonomy also increased the likelihood of students being optimally challenged, that is, taking on challenges in-line with their own skill level. Perceived loss of autonomy has been found to dimin ish students initiative and ability to learn, particularly complex or abstract concepts (Benware Deci, 1984). Related studies have found that students faced with complex tasks performed more highly when intrinsically motivated than when extrinsically motivated (Condry Chambers, 1978). According to Lepper (1988), extrinsically motivated students will only put in the minimum effort required, and tend to undertake less difficult tasks than those who are intrinsically motivated. Lepper (1988) claims that in order to promote intrinsic motivation, activities should be challenging but achievable and stimulate students curiosity. Lepper suggests that teachers can raise intrinsic motivation by contextualizing learning, so that students can appreciate the benefits of what they are doing. The construct of optimal challenge is of fundamental importance not just to SDT, but to other leading motivational theories such as Harters Competence Motivation and Csikszentmihalyis Flow Theory, which all establish connections with intrinsic motivation (Mandigo Holt, 2006). Deci and Ryan (1985) state that optimally challenged individuals will develop increased intrinsic motivation because they experience greater competence at a particular activity. In the literature one often comes across the concept of perceived locus of causality (PLOC). This is where an individual perceives their successes and failures to originate from. When an individual feels in control (perceived autonomy) this is described as an IPLOC (intrinsic). Conversely, when an individual feels they are subordinated by an external agent this is described as an EPLOC (extrinsic). Several studies have revealed that changes in intrinsic motivation can occur without a change in the PLOC (Boal Cummings, 1981; Harackiewicz et al., 1984). This is in disagreement with the third proposition outlined above. Also in contradiction to this proposition are the results of Salancik (1975) who, after rewarding participating students with money (extrinsic motivation), found they reported increased perceptions of control (autonomy). CET predicts that extrinsic motivation should result in a shift in the PLOC, thus undermining intrinsic motivation. There have been alternate theories attempting to explain why rewards might undermine intrinsic motivation. Dickenson posited three ideas; overly repetitive tasks gradual deplete motivation, rewards deemed to be coercive are undermining, and extrinsically motivated actions tend to receive less praise from peers (Dickinson, 1989). Organismic Integration Theory (OIT) The second sub-theory of SDT is called Organismic Integration Theory (OIT). Its primary concerns are modes of behaviour regulation, and the degree to which they are internalized (Deci Ryan, 1985a). Hagger Chatzisarantis (2008) describe it as explaining how people integrate behaviours that are initially non-self-determined. Deci and Ryan (1985) proposed a heuristic continuum of regulatory modes ranging from totally non-self-determined at one end to totally self-determined at the other. The validity of this continuum has since been supported by research (Horn, 2008, p.134): Amotivation total absence of motivation, linked to perceived incompetence. External regulation a form of compliance to external influences, the removal of which will likely cause an individual to cease a particular behaviour. Introjection acting on self-imposed pressures such as guilt, or finding self-esteem in the perceived approval of others. Identification consciously acknowledging the value of undertaking a particular behaviour. Integration internalization of regulation such that it is entirely compatible with attitudes and sense of self, still as a means to an end. Intrinsic regulation internalization of regulation, undertaking activities for their own sake and enjoyment with no regard to external factors. One has to be careful not to confuse the term external with extrinsic. Certain extrinsic modes of regulation are perceived to be equally as internal to an individual as intrinsic motivation. They are extrinsic in the sense that they contingent on external consequences, but internal in the sense that the motivation emanates from within. It thus makes sense to also delineate between internal and intrinsic. All intrinsic motivation is inherently internal, but not all internal motivation is intrinsic. One can be as tyrannical toward oneself as others can be. The issue is not so much whether the source of control is oneself or another, but whether or not one is being controlled (Deci Ryan, 1985). Causality Orientation Theory (COT) The third sub-theory of SDT is concerned with how individuals perceive the events which initiate, regulate and hence mediate the level of self-determination of their behaviour, viz. their causality orientation (Deponte, 2004). This new personality dimension grew out of prior work laid down by Heider and deCharms (Deci Ryan, 1985b). The General Causality Orientations Scale was synthesized by Deci Ryan, (1985b) as a fairly persistent means for characterizing aspects of personality and motivation. They outlined three orientations, namely autonomy, control and impersonal, then measured how subjects responded to various hypothetical situations (Horn, 2008). Autonomy oriented individuals have higher self-esteem (Horn, 2008), are self-initiating and actively pursue opportunities for self-determination; structuring their lives around their own goals and interests. These individuals exhibit a higher degree of intrinsic motivation and hence maintain greater self-determination in the face of extrinsic influences. External rewards hold little influence over these individuals and merely serve to affirm their competence (Deci Ryan, 1985b). Control oriented individuals interpret their behaviours as originating from, and being regulated by, external or internal controls. These individuals depend on pressure, surveillance, deadlines, threats and expectations to motivate their actions. They experience the world in terms of defiance and compliance (Deci Ryan, 1985b). Impersonal oriented individuals can experience helplessness and deem their actions as out of their hands. They perceive themselves as unable to influence the course of their own lives. Impersonal orientation is correlated with depressive attitudes and feelings of incompetence (Deci Ryan, 1985b). Recently published research conducted by Friedman et al. (2009) has claimed that extrinsically motivated individuals can become intrinsically motivated by observing the behaviour of an intrinsically motivated individual. Basic Needs Theory Now to the fourth sub-theory of SDT, Basic Needs Theory (BNT). This sub-theory posits that intrinsic motivation originates from a universal, biologically-hard-wired need to achieve autonomy, competence and relatedness. An individual will not experience complete fulfillment of a specific need unless all three are satisfied in concert. Due to the fundamental nature of these needs, humans have a natural preference to act on intrinsic rather than extrinsic motivation (Deci Ryan, 2000). BNT has empirical backing which supports it as a culturally independent theory (Sheldon et al., 2001). Goal Contents Theory The fifth and final sub-theory of SDT is called Goal Contents Theory (GCT). Within this construct a goals contents is described as either intrinsic or extrinsic. Classic examples of extrinsic contents are fame, wealth, physical appearance, reputation and most other materialistic or superficial motives. In contrast, intrinsic contents tend to be concerned with personal development and acceptance, community contribution, health, fulfillment and establishing meaningful relationships (Kasser Ryan, 1996). The pursuit of intrinsic goals has been suggested to satiate the three fundamental needs of competence, autonomy and relatedness, and hence facilitates the growth of intrinsic motivation (Vansteenkiste et al., 2003). The opposite effect has been proposed for the pursuit of extrinsic goals (Vansteenkiste et al., 2007). Self-Determination Theory in summary and in context A review of such fascinating research literature would seem rather pointless if no practical applications were to emerge from it. For this reason I have distilled some of the salient ideas into a more digestible form, in the hope that theory may be put into practice. In the context of education, teachers need only remember the following outline of SDT: All people have three basic needs (competence, autonomy and relatedness). Satisfying these needs has been shown to promote intrinsic (self) motivation. Intrinsic (self) motivation has been shown to improve students learning and performance. Teachers should employ strategies which help students to satisfy their three basic needs. The task for teachers is therefore to find effective strategies for helping their students to feel competent within their subject, to feel in control of their own learning and have input into what goes on in lessons, and to feel that their views, opinions and work are appreciated and respected. Key advice for the research-informed classroom The use of computers in the classroom gives the students a sense of privacy, autonomy and self-pacing (Underwood Brown, 1997). Research has shown that positive and negative feedback can subsequently increase and decrease students perceived competence and hence intrinsic motivation (Vallerand Reid, 1984). Offering tangible rewards in order to coerce or encourage students will undermine their intrinsic motivation. The effect has less impact if rewards are presented unexpectedly (Deci et al., 2001, p.4). Verbal praise which is intended to control students behaviour will undermine their intrinsic motivation (Deci et al., 2001, p.4). evidence suggests that teachers support of students basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness facilitates students autonomous self-regulation for learning, academic performance, and wellbeing (Niemiec Ryan, 2009). Give students choice, and freedom to decide what they learn and how (Goudas et al., 1995). Contextualize learning so that students know why they are learning things (Lepper, 1988). Teachers can raise intrinsic motivation by showing enthusiasm (Friedman et al., 2009). Sudbury Schools These schools employ a system of complete educational democracy in which students and teachers are treated as equals. There is no formal curriculum per se, as students decide on what they would like to learn. In addition, Sudbury schools do not grade, evaluate or assess their students performance. All learning is intrinsically motivated and optimally challenging. The first Sudbury school was Sudbury Valley School, Massachusetts which opened in 1968. There are presently over thirty such schools around the world, although predominately in the United States and Japan. In some Sudbury schools there are no well-defined classrooms, and it is common for students to be mixed by age. Students in these schools have a significant role in the recruitment and dismissal of staff. Visitors have often described the students as being in a state of perpetual recreation (Holzman, 1997). Sudbury schools are a testament to and realization of SDT in the domain of education.

Morality in Measure for Measure by Shakespeare Essay -- Measure for Me

Morality in Measure for Measure  Ã‚        Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Shakespeare's play, Measure for Measure, focuses on human morality. The play also explores the question of what kind of sexual conduct is socially acceptable, and what is not. The play depicts various attitudes toward prostitution, promiscuity, and premarital sex. But it also suggests that human laws and perhaps human morality are quite arbitrary and relative.    Measure for Measure considers the need for statutes and laws to govern sexual appetites and ensure domestic tranquility. But it also focuses on the conflict between human actions and human moral values, especially as it is manifest in the issue of seeming and being. The Duke himself notes the difference between appearance and reality as he speaks about his deputy Angelo, who appears to be the perfect deputy and the disciplined (even puritanical) character. Noting Angelos character, the Duke also questions the integrity of his inner and outer worlds:    Lord Angelo is precise; Stands at a guard with envy; scarce confesses That his blood flows, or that his appetite Is more to bread than stone: hence shall we see, If power change purpose, what our seemers be.    Angelo ultimately proves to be a seemer, one whose statements of virtue and self-control do not match his behavior. But to call him a hypocrite misses the mark: he is as surprised at his lust as anyone else, at least at its onset, and he questions his moral status at first. His virtue had always been quite real for him, and his slide into sin catches him off guard. When he finds himself lusting after Isabella, he exclaims with surprise,    What's this, what's this? Is this her fault or mine? The tempter or the tempted, who sins most? Ha! No... ... objective standards but by what the traffic will bear.    Works Cited Black, James. "The Unfolding of Measure for Measure." Shakespeare Survey 26 (1973): 119-28. Knight, G. Wilson. Shakespeare and Morality. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1967. Leech, Clifford. "The 'Meaning' of Measure for Measure." Shakespeare Survey 3 (1950): 69-71. Milward, Peter. Shakespeare's Religious Background. Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1973. New American Standard Bible. Reference ed. Chicago: Moody Press, 1975. Shakespeare, William. Measure for Measure. The Arden Shakespeare. Ed. J.W. Lever. London: Routledge, 1995. Thomas, Vivian.   The Moral Universe of Shakespeare's Problem Plays.   London: Croom Helm, 1987. Wilders, John.   "The Problem Comedies."   In Wells, Stanley, ed.   Shakespeare: Select Bibliographical Guides.   London: Oxford UP, 1973.

Public Speaking Self Reflection Essay

During the first week of class we learned about presentations and talking in front of people. At which each individual experienced nervousness and fear. As we gave our presentations each person was given a critique on strengths and weaknesses. I saw many weaknesses in my presentation and intend on working on finding ways to improve them into strengths. Some anxiety signs I noticed were speaking too fast and moving around. I feel maybe I rushed the presentation and possibly distracted by my thoughts and material in my hands. I didn’t have the correct mind set to calm down and speak clearer and slower. I wanted to get the presentation over with so I think I went in with the mind set of doing it fast. I think one way to work on that is take my presentations more seriously and find ways to enjoy them. Looking at the class while speaking may also contribute to this, because they seemed just as disinterested as I was. I think that may have messed with my head a bit but I need to work on ways to look and feel more enthusiastic, that way the class can feel the same. What I hope to accomplish in this class is get rid of the anticipation and nervousness I get before and during speeches and presentations. Though I don’t have a  problem speaking in front of people, I want the feeling to be second nature to me. Ways to improve that is practice talking with strangers and giving speeches or presentations in front of friends and family. If I can’t talk in front of my friends and family, then chances are I can’t do it in front of strangers. In conclusion, it was refreshing to get feedback from your peers in order to better yourself. A lot of times the presentation goes well in our head, or least we think so, but it doesn’t quite come out exactly like you thought. Having the kind of criticism is healthy because even though we practice, we don’t notice things about ourselves, like body language or tone of voice. Practice doesn’t make perfect but practice makes permanent. If you practice wrong, you risk bad habits and risk doing it wrong.

Lawn Care Case Essay

1) A) Currently Lawn Care focuses on quality and innovation. Their product is said to be the best available with the highest quality grass seed and fertilizer in the world. They are also a very well known company which is another competitive advantage. They specialize in providing the best and quickly delivering the product to the customer demanding the product. B) The company perceives the quality of their products, and their direct delivery to be the order winner for the company. They provide what is expected, in terms of high quality seed and fertilizer, making this also an order qualifier. Another company, such as their competitor may consider the installation they proved to be the order winner, in that it sets them apart from their competition. C) CBP 2) A) Lawn Cares competitor’s current strategic mission is to provide a bundle package. Their competitive advantage is that they also install the product. They save the customer time, and create convenience for the customer because they do not have to find and contact and plan with a third party to have the work done. B) The competitor perceives the need for seed, fertilizer, and sod as the order qualifier, and the installation and additional yard work they provide as the order winner because it sets them apart from their competition, Lawn Care. 3) If Lawn Care were to add the application business to their existing business they would need to secure more employees. They would need employees who have experience in landscaping and are able to do the physical labor. This could take months to find and train the new employees. They would also need to purchase equipment such as lawn mowers, trucks, trailers, etc. to  assist in the application side of the business. This would involve using some of their assets to purchase and later on repair and manage upkeep, but they would achieve a gain in capital equipment assets. Lawn Care would also have to use additional resources to market their new service bundle. The addition of installation would not do the company any good if nobody knew they were now offering the service. It may be beneficial to the company if they contacted previous customers as well to tell them of the changes and see if they need any more work done. Changing advertisements and adding new advertisements and promoti ons would also take months, but would benefit the company in the long run. 4) Lawn Care would have to consider how the community and previous customers would react to the changes and whether they would find the change beneficial and take advantage of the new services offered. Stakeholders would be affected as well with the relocation of assets and the risks being taken by Lawn Care to add such a substantial portion to their business. The changes and how they will effect stock in the company is an important economic sustainability factor for the company to consider. The company was accused of pollution and other damage application mistakes before implementing this new service bundle. The company should consider environmental sustainability and because they would have more control of the application process than they did previously they will need to be more aware of how they are affecting the environment and what they can do to prevent any future claims against them. The company should also determine how they will market the product and how this will affect social sustainability. What can they do to make everyone aware of the products and gain back any customers they lost to their competition before offering the service? Lawn Care needs to consider how sustainable the service will be and make sure that it will be a lasting effort before purchasing the new equipment and implementing new processes. –