Using Death Row Inmates For Medical Research Essay examples

Katelyn Morgan ENG 111 Shores October, 2012 Using Death Row Inmates For Medical Research Due to animal testing, one animal dies in a laboratory in the United States every second, in Japan every two seconds and in the United Kingdom every twelve seconds. Billions of non-human animals have been burnt, crushed, sliced, electrocuted, poisoned with toxic chemicals, and psychologically tormented because of medical research. Alternatives for these experiments have shown to be less expensive and can be used repeatedly. We are in desperate need of reliable medical research. Why not experiment and receive more accurate finding for our medical needs? Why not use people who didn’t think twice about giving up their so-called human-rights when†¦show more content†¦During testing, it was shown to decrease this rate. Companies â€Å"claim† they carry out animal testing to establish the safety of their products beyond doubts. Their â€Å"main reason† to continue their horrific experiments on defenseless animals is to protect overall human health. It does not seem completely logically to test human products and inject human diseases in animals that often are not resulting in the accurate results society depends upon. What better way to determine what effects a drug will have on a human than by testing it on a human? Death Row Inmates who have been proven guilty of their heinous crime should have to partake in a service to improve humanity since they are no longer a productive member of society. According to the 8th Amendment to the United States Constitution, we as the people prohibit the federal government from imposing excessive bail, excessive fines or cruel and unusual punishment. 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Identity Works Relevance For Understanding Contemporary Work

Identity Work’s relevance for understanding contemporary work and organising: - Shifting towards a modern organisational identity: - In order to understand identity work, we need to understand the changing role of organisational identity in contemporary organisation. Marx, Weber Durkheim observed a shift from agricultural and craftwork to factory and office based work (Barley Kunda, 2001). A shift from a more physical blue-collar labour to an office based white collar took place. Whilst computers and other technologies have eliminated different kinds of work, they have also created new ones and have transformed a significant portion of others, for example in IT industry (Barley 1988, Adler 1992). There are new struggles in the workplace ¬, such as new identity intensive issues such as feminisation of managerial roles, the shifting meaning of professionalism and internationalisation of business activity. The increased number of women occupying managerial and professional positions, traditionally taken by men, has changed the former taken-for-granted meaning of managerial identity (Alvesson Willmott, 2002). Tak ing all of these identity changes in account, Barley and Kunda suggest that the nature of work and organisation studies are interdependent (Barley Kunda 2001), therefore, contemporary organisational theorists are forced to adapt to the change in the nature of work. Defining and Conceptualising Identity Work: - Identity work is the process of forming,Show MoreRelatedANALIZ TEXT INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS28843 Words   |  116 PagesAny literary work is unique. It is created by the author in accordance with his vision and is permeated with his idea of the world. The reader’s interpretation is also highly individual and depends to a great extent on his knowledge and personal experience. That’s why one cannot lay down a fixed â€Å"model† for a piece of critical appreciation. Nevertheless, one can give information and suggestions that may prove helpful. PLOT The Elements of Plot When we refer to the plot of a work of fiction, thenRead More Transcending Herbert Marcuse on Alienation, Art and the Humanities4411 Words   |  18 Pageslearning to art, political education to human flourishing? Philosophers from Confucius and Aristotle to John Dewey and Paulo Freire have investigated, as the axial human problem, how education is to help us in accomplishing our own humanization. The contemporary search for a genuinely critical theory and an authentically democratic society continues that project. But what can make theory critical, education liberating, society democratic? It is necessary to theorize our society critically if we areRead MoreManagement Course: Mba−10 General Management215330 Words   |  862 PagesISBN: 0−390−58539−4 Text: Effective Behavior in Organizations, Seventh Edition Cohen Harvard Business Review Finance Articles The Power of Management Capital Feigenbaum−Feigenbaum International Management, Sixth Edition Hodgetts−Luthans−Doh Contemporary Management, Fourth Edition Jones−George Driving Shareholder Value Morin−Jarrell Leadership, Fifth Edition Hughes−Ginnett−Curphy The Art of M A: Merger/Acquisitions/Buyout Guide, Third Edition Reed−Lajoux and others . . . This book was

Foreign Exchange Research & Trading Report †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Foreign Exchange Research and Trading Report. Answer: Introduction Foreign Exchange rate can be defined as the rate at which the currency of one country may be transformed into the currency of another country (Moosa Bhatti, 2010). It is considered as one of the most important means which assists in determining the relative level of the economic health of a country. The foreign exchange rate provides a window to the economic stability of a country. The fluctuations in exchange rates re caused daily with the changes in market forces of demand and supply of the currencies from one county to another. This report focuses on the factors that have an influence on the value of exchange rate such as the supply and demand, inflation and deflation, interest rates and money supply policy, balance of payments, asset prices and politics and war (Block, Hirt Danielsen, 2011). This report also discusses the management of the value of Chinese Yuan (CNY) by Peoples Bank of China (PBOC) along with the opinion regarding the future direction of PBOC policy. Factors having greatest influence on the value of Exchange Rates Following are the factors that have the greatest influence on the value of exchange rates. Supply and Demand The forces of demand and supply have a great influence on the determination of exchange rates (Levi, 2009). The value of a currency is expected to increase when there is high demand for that currency in comparison with the currency for which there is less demand (Gabaix Maggiori, 2015). The value of a currency is declined in comparison with other currency when the holders of such currency have a desire of disposing it in exchange for other currencies. The detection of opportunity in a particular currency by the market participants, either for higher investment returns or direct appreciation, results in the increase in demand for that currency (Corsetti Lloyd, 2016). This in turn will lead to currency appreciation as the purchasers will outbid on another. When such an opportunity is moved to another currency/ country, first currency holders sell their currency for obtaining the currency associated with new opportunity. The fall and rise of the exchange rate depend on the basic econo mic conditions that prompt investors, traders and others to obtain more of a specific currency (Metcalf, 2018). For example, in 1971, there was upward float in the exchange rate and then a downwards float against all the foremost currencies until the year 1976. One of the main reason behind this depreciation was a rapid demand expansion in the UK. Inflation and Deflation Inflation can be defined as the rate at which there is an increase in the general level of prices of goods and services (Hart, 2009). The variations in the inflation rate have short term and long term implications for the foreign exchange market. The value of the currency increases with the fall in inflation rate of a country. Lower inflation also results in slower rate of increase in the prices of goods and services. Rising currency value is exhibited by the country having a consistent lower inflation rate whereas depreciation in the currency is witnessed by the country with higher inflation rate (Weale, Blake, Christodoulakis, Meade Vines, 2015). In other words, cost of production is increased due to inflation which subsequently results in the increase in prices for goods which in turn leads to less competitive exports. This further leads to fall in exports thereby weakening the domestic currency. High signs of inflation have the capability of bringing an increase in the domestic currency due to the anticipation of traders regarding the possibility of slowing down of inflation by increasing interest rates attempted by the local central bank. Deflation, on the other hand, is considered as the symbol of economic depression and is complemented by a weaker currency and lower interest rates (Frenkel Johnson, 2013). For example, UK suffered from the peak of inflation in the late 1970s and early 1980s. For a very long time, the value of pound has been weak in comparison with dollar which is depreciating since the preceding 116 years by an annual rate of 1 percent. This depreciation is considered to be a result of the higher inflation rate in Britain which resulted in degrading the purchasing power of the pound by a minuscule 0.22 percent every year. Interest Rates and Money Supply Policy The official monitory policy of a country sets the interest rates which have a great influence on the exchange rates (Bodenstein, Erceg Guerrieri, 2017). The level of economic activity is influenced by the Central banks along with the influencing the behavior of lenders and borrowers in their currency by fluctuating the interest rates. The rate of foreign exchange, inflation and interest rates are correlated. The dollar exchange rate and currency value is affected as a result of changes in interest rates. Appreciation in the currency of a country is witnessed when there is an increase in the interest rates. This is due to the fact that higher interest rates provide higher rates to the lenders which in turn attract larger foreign capital and lead to a rise in the exchange rates. The hunt for best possible returns by the foreign investors leads to the attraction of larger investment funds to the country and this leads to the strengthening of the currency due to higher interest rates. Moreover, the official monetary policy in eased and the interest rates are lowered when the central bank views the economy as sluggish. This in turn weakens the country currency. Moreover, the increase in the money supply reduces the interest rates which further leads to a reduction in the exchange rates. For example, a rise in the UK interest rates was witnessed during the mid- 1970s, without any equivalent increase in the interest rates in US, the difference is accounted for by a discount on sterling. From 1973 to 1976, it was expected that there will be a substantial depreciation in sterling and therefore, the interest rates of UK were required to be in excess of US rates by an equal margin. Balance of Payments Balance of payments (BOP) can be defined as the summary of all the international transactions of a country in a specific period of time (Stern, 2017). When the exports of a country are more than its imports then it is known as trade surplus. Moreover, when the imports of a country are more than its exports then it is known as trade deficit. A country has firmer currency in cases when the exports are more than the imports in comparison with the country which is involved in more importing. Changes in the balance of payments of a country cause variations in the exchange rate. More foreign receipts are generated in a country having a trade surplus than the foreign debts. For the purpose of conversion of these foreign receipts into the local currency, the requirement arises for selling the foreign currencies and purchasing the local currency. This purchasing of the local currency is in excess of the sale made by the importers exchanging their funds into foreign currencies for paying for t heir purchases. The value in comparison with other currencies is lifted as a result of excess demand for the domestic currency. There are two interrelated and different markets at work: the demand and supply of a particular currency (exchange rate) and the market for the international markets financial transactions (balance of payments). The exchange rate is not impacted by the balance of payments in a fixed- rate system as the currency flows is adjusted by the central banks for offsetting the exchange of funds internationally. For example, a deficit on the current account balance of payments was faced by UK throughout the 1950s and 60s. Trade deficit was considered as the major economic problem faced by UK. For the purpose of financing the current account deficit, the use of capital flows or diminishing foreign exchange reserves were required. This along with several other factors resulted in the devaluation of sterling in the year 1967. From $2.80 to $2.40 which was a devaluation of nearly 14%. Asset Prices The prices of the assets also have an influence on the foreign exchange rate. Assets comprise of items such as equities, bonds and real estate (industrial, commercial and residential). In cases, where a buoyant market is enjoyed by assets in a particular country, the chances of the attraction of international investment managers are increased for the purpose of maximizing their returns (Andersen, Bollerslev, Diebold Vega, 2007). The buying of local currency will significantly increase due to relatively high returns as there is a flow of foreign funds into the better performing assets. When the rates are increased by the central bank (returns increase and the prices of asset prices fall), there is an appreciation in the currency due to the attraction of the investors towards it (Cooper, 2014). There is a relationship between the general trend of the currency and the return on assets: the increased risk taking among people leads to the depreciation in the low- yielding currencies. For example, the financial markets of the US faced financial market movements of an average of over 25% of euro area during the year 1989- 2004, whereas 8% of the variance of asset prices of US were accounted for by euro area markets. Politics and Wars The currency strength of a country is also affected by political stability, economic performance and proneness to wars (MacDonald, 2007). Foreign investors are more attracted to a country which suffers from less risk for political turmoil. This in turn draws the investment away from the countries prone to more political and economic risk. In other words, the currency market participants does not like risk and uncertainty, especially political uncertainty as it has the capability of causing unintended consequences which are not priced in by the investors and traders at the commencement (Quinn Weymouth, 2016). The value of the local currency of the country is appreciated as a result of increase in the foreign capital. When the financial and trade policy of a country is sound, there is no uncertainty in the currencys value. However, depreciation in the exchange rates of a country can be witnessed when such a country is prone to political confusions. The fluctuations in the exchange rat es are caused by terrorist attacks and wars which leads the investors towards seeking the safest place for their money (Suleman Berka, 2017). For example, before the start of the First World War, every 1 was worth under $5. The pound was weakened as a result of Napoleonic wars which are considered as one of the exceptional period which led to the temporary spiking up of the pound to $10. The First World War resulted in the suspended gold standard and the war imposed financial burden on the sterling which made it sink to $3.66 (Connington, 2016). Management of Value of CNY by PBOC and Future Direction of PBOC Policy Unlike the international trade partners of China who allow free floating of the value of their currencies against others, the currency policy of China is strictly controlled where the trading activity is controlled and the daily movements of the yuan is regulated by China on the foreign exchange market. For the purpose of taming the economic instability, Peoples Bank of China (PBOC) fixed the exchange rate at slightly higher than 8 yuan to the US dollar and maintained it until 2005 when the currency policy was moved towards liberalization by the introduction of a narrow trading band. The trading band was allowed to be widened in the past decade by the Chinese government starting at +/- 0.3% and finally reaching +/- 2% by March 2014 (FXCM, 2016). The Peoples Bank of China has maintained strict rules for banks and individuals holding foreign currency. This is the reason due to which the currency is not yet considered to be fully convertible. Investors are required to sell their dollars or foreign currency directly to the Peoples Bank of China when they want to exchange it for yuan so that it can be incorporated by PBOC into the foreign reserves of the country. The portion of the reserves of China is used for the purpose of influencing the value of yuan through the interventions in the foreign exchange market. The foreign currency reserves are sold in the market by PBOC for strengthening yuan. When the currency of the country is required to be weakened PBOC makes the use of its local currency for buying foreign currency. In case where interference is required, the government can make the use of interbank market for buying or selling the currency, where the PBOC designated foreign exchange banks are maintained for operating on i ts behalf for spot market transactions. The Peoples Bank of China also has instruments such as derivative contracts at its disposal for influencing the value of the currency and market. PBOC has used some of these instruments for bringing sophistication in the management of foreign reserves and currency rates. These instruments are used as it does not require PBOC to sell dollar supplies immediately and is therefore advantageous. This further leads to slowing down of the depletion of Chinas reserves thereby maintaining market confidence in its ability for intervening in the future. After the liberalization of currency policy in the year 2005, higher interest rates had been maintained by PBOC. However, in the year 2014, the local interest rates were eased by PBOC for the purpose of counteracting the slowing economy. The foreign currency inflows were discouraged into the economy as a result of rate easing thereby leading to the pressure for the weakening of yuan. The currency rate of China is currently maintained within a controlled band that varies in accordance with the market demand. PBOC is said to prefer near-term levels of currency by way of its interbank foreign exchange system. Mid-price is used by PBOC for guiding the daily fixing of the exchange rate of yuan against dollar on the basis of the previous closing price of yuan against US dollar. The Peoples Bank of China has allowed the exchange rate to fall or rise up to 2% on daily basis from official midpoint (South China Morning Post, 2017). The power of the Chinese currency is a result of its exports made to America. The payment for the exports is received in dollars by the Chinese companies from the United States. The dollars are deposited by such companies into the banks in exchange for yuan for the purpose of making payment to their employees. The dollars are then send to PBOC by the banks. It is then stockpiled into the foreign exchange reserves which in turn cause a reduction in the supply of dollars available for trade (Yu, 2014). This results in rising of the dollars value and falling of yuans value. Dollars are utilized by PBOC for purchasing U.S Treasures (Amadeo, 2017). The regime used for the management of yuan has now been changed by Peoples Bank of China by way of removing a component utilized for the purpose of calculating their submissions to the daily reference rate of the currency. Counter- cyclical factor has been introduced by China for reducing the fluctuations in yuan initiating the introduction of capital controls. This led to better control of PBOC over yuan but weakened the efforts made earlier for making yuan more market driven and accessible (Bloomberg, 2018). The future direction of the PBOC policy is highlighted by the signals as to future reforms of the financial signals of the country and the direction of the monetary policy. Yi Gang, the Deputy Governor of PBOC, referred to the repeated reference of the central government to stability in the monetary policy and creation of an external environment that is capable of stably proceeding financial reforms and preventing risk. The deputy governor of Peoples Bank of China has also signified that PBOC will continue its managed floating exchange rate framework for keeping the stability in yuan currency. The framework will be based on the demand and supply and the value of yuan against a basket of currencies. The yuan exchange rate is expected to be further liberalized in order to maintain the stable position of yuan in the global monetary system. (Reuters, 2017) Conclusion Foreign exchange is the rate at which the currency of one country may be transformed into the currency of another country. this report assists in concluding that there are a number of factors which influences the value of exchange rate including demand and supply, interest rate and money supply policy, inflation and deflation, balance of payments, asset prices and politics and wars, etc. (James, Marsh Sarno, 2012). Moreover, this report focused on the management of Chinese Yuan (CNY) by Peoples Bank of China (PBOC) along with the opinion regarding the future direction of PBOC policy. Therefore, it can be concluded that the maintenance of strict rules by PBOC has resulted in stable position of yuan. Moreover, steps are being taken to maintain this stability of yuan in the global monetary system with the help of floating exchange rate framework. References Amadeo, K. (2017). How Does China Influence the U.S. Dollar?. Retrieved March 21, 2018 from https://www.thebalance.com/how-does-china-influence-the-u-s-dollar-3970466 Andersen, T. G., Bollerslev, T., Diebold, F. X., Vega, C. (2007). Real-time price discovery in global stock, bond and foreign exchange markets.Journal of international Economics,73(2), 251-277. Block, S. B., Hirt, G. A. Danielsen, B. R. (2011). Foundations of financial management. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. Bloomberg. (2018). China Changes the Way It Manages Yuan After Currency's Jump. Retrieved March 21, 2018 from https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-01-09/china-is-said-to-shift-way-it-manages-yuan-after-currency-s-jump Bodenstein, M., Erceg, C. J., Guerrieri, L. (2017). The effects of foreign shocks when interest rates are at zero.Canadian Journal of Economics/Revue canadienne d'conomique,50(3), 660-684. Connington, J. 2016. From $5 to $1.22: the 200-year journey of the pound against the dollar. Retrieved March 21, 2018 from https://www.telegraph.co.uk/money/special-reports/from-5-to-122-the-200-year-journey-of-the-pound-against-the-doll/ Cooper, R. N. (2014). Exchange rate choices. Corsetti, G., Lloyd, S. P. (2016). Demand and Real Exchange Rate Determination in Open Economies: Foundations of Misalignments and Global Imbalances. Frenkel, J. A. Johnson, H. G. (2013). The Economics of Exchange Rates (Collected Works of Harry Johnson): Selected Studies. Routledge. FXCM. (2016). How Does China Control Exchange Rates?. Retrieved March 21, 2018 from https://www.fxcm.com/insights/how-does-china-control-exchange-rates/ Gabaix, X., Maggiori, M. (2015). International liquidity and exchange rate dynamics.The Quarterly Journal of Economics,130(3), 1369-1420. Hart, J. (2009). How Inflation Works. The Rosen Publishing Group. James, J., Marsh, I. Sarno, L. (2012). Handbook of Exchange Rates. John Wiley Sons. Levi, M. D. (2009). International Finance 5th Edition. Routledge. MacDonald, R. (2007). Exchange Rate Economics: Theories and Evidence. Psychology Press. Metcalf, T. (2018). The Effect of Supply Demand on the Rate of Exchange. Retrieved March 21, 2018 from https://smallbusiness.chron.com/effect-supply-demand-rate-exchange-67467.html Moosa, I. A. Bhatti, R. H. (2010). The Theory and Empirics of Exchange Rates. World Scientific. Quinn, D. P., Weymouth, S. (2016). The Political Origins of Exchange Rate Valuations. Reuters. (2017). China to maintain exchange rate policy framework - central bank deputy governor. Retrieved March 21, 2018 from https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-china-economy-exchange-rate/china-to-maintain-exchange-rate-policy-framework-central-bank-deputy-governor-idUSKBN16D0SH South China Morning Post. (2017). Why the PBOC has changed the way it computes the yuans daily midpoint. Retrieved March 21, 2018 from https://www.scmp.com/business/banking-finance/article/2072973/why-pboc-has-changed-way-it-computes-yuans-daily-midpoint Stern, R. (2017).Balance of Payments: Theory and Economic Policy. Routledge. Suleman, T., Berka, M. (2017). Political Risk, Exchange Rate Return and Volatility. Weale, M., Blake, A., Christodoulakis, N., Meade, J. E., Vines, D. (2015).Macroeconomic policy: inflation, wealth and the exchange rate(Vol. 8). Routledge. Yu, Y. (2014). Revisiting the Internationalization of the Yuan. InReform of the International Monetary System(pp. 107-129). Springer, Tokyo.

Through Generational Relationships One Young Haitian Woman Comes To Te

Through generational relationships one young Haitian woman comes to terms with her country, her mother, and her own identity. In Breath, Eyes, Memory author Edwidge Danticat portrays the relationships between three generations of women as the roots that help them learn to survive many strifling adversities. Danticat's heroine is Sophie, who has spent a happy childhood in Haiti with her grandmother and her beloved aunt, who raised her as their own child. Sophie lives with her relatives until her mother who lives in New York sends for her and forces Sophie to leave the only home and family she knows and begin a new life in a strange country with a mother she hardly remembers. As Sophie overcomes her initial fears and becomes closer to her mother, she learns that her mother has for many years been tormented by the memories of the anonymous man--Sophie's father--who violently raped her when she was a teenager; this has brought upon verges of terror and guilt on Sophie which makes life un bearable to cope. Sophie elopes with an older man and has a baby to make a new life, but even so she still suffers from the haunting emotional problems brought on her by her mother. In an attempt to come to terms with her past and her family, she takes her infant daughter to Haiti, and there the generations of women finally come to understand one another, and while life tragically ends for Sophie's mother, Sophie is able to go back to her American life with a new strength. The whole plot was motivated by conflict. There are many instances of conflict in this story. One example of conflict is between Sophie's love for her aunt and her loyalty to her biological mother during her move to New York. Sophie wanted to stay with the family she loved but she knew she should go to the mother who gave birth to her. Another example of conflict in the story is between Sophie's mother and her horrible past. Her mother is constantly haunted by her past, and though she tries to live peacefully, her past eventually draws her to take her own life. One more example of conflict is between Sophie and her mother when she lives in New York. She loves her mom, but she can't stand to live with the emotional stress her mom puts upon her. Conflict as well as setting has helped the reader further understand this story. The setting helps the reader to better understand the story in many instances. One example of the role of the setting is when Sophie is walking down the common streets of Haiti with her grandmother. The reader gets the feeling that there is warm love between the families because the houses in Haiti are placed close together which creates warm cooperation and love between the families. Another example of setting influence occurs when Sophie faces trouble and confusion in moving from warm Haiti to confusing New York City. Because Sophie is moving from the warm setting of her small Haitian home to a large and bustling town, the reader feels the large conflict that lay ahead in her life. One more example of setting influence is when Sophie leaves her troubling life in New York to find relief in her comforting Haitian home. The reader views New York as big, advanced, and full of trouble and views Haiti as having warm family communities. This helps the reader understand why Sophie has a ne ed to retreat from troublesome New York back to her Haitian home. The settings in this story have played a big part in helping the reader to better enjoy the story. The use of Haitian dialect that was tied in with the English was a very affective way to portray the culture. The vocabulary of this book was adequate and enjoyable to an average to above average level of reading. A reader of these levels would not have to keep stopping to look up words in a dictionary. The dialogue used especially by the grandmother and the aunt showed their Haitian culture as well as their lack of education. In an over-all view I would say that I thought this book was

Electronics The WritePass Journal

Electronics Introduction Electronics IntroductionTASK 1: THE 555 TIMER IC.MODES: ASTABLE MODE:MONOSTABLE MODE:BISTABLE MODE:OPERATION:TASK 2:  INTRODUCTION OF FET TRANSISTOR:CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF FETDEPLETION MODE:THE ENHANCEMENT MODE MOSFET:COMAPRISON BETWEEN MOSFET AND BJT:ADVANTAGE OF MOSFET DEVICE:DISADVANTAGE OF MOSFET DEVICE:   USES OF MOSFETs:REFERENCES:Related Introduction In this assignment I would try my level best to fulfill all the condition of the given tasks. I would concern figure of things while attempting the assignment. Firstly, the referencing and the bibliography should be updated timely because it will help me keep in mind where I have got the materials from. Secondly I would try to complete my assignment under the chosen time limit which is very vital. Thirdly all the given tasks should be completed with appropriate information and try to stay within the word count. Lastly, I would try to present my work with clarity and rationality so my hard work should be understood in best possible manner TASK 1: THE 555 TIMER IC. 1a) Before 555 timer came to the market there were large distinct circuits used to carry out the operation of a timer but the compatibility and numerous other advantages of a 555 timer lead the breakthrough .The 555 timer is an integrated circuit designed by Hans R. Camenzind and commercialized by that times leading semiconductors manufacturer signetics. It’s mainly used in variety for timing purposes, producing perfect timing periods through a vast range of time and as a multi vibrator and due to the versatility of the IC it has made conspicuous place in the history of electronics. Never thought by its maker to be so flexible the 555 package consists of numerous transistors, diodes and resistors (depending on the purposes) imbedded on a silicon chip and connected to an 8-pin dual in line package. (D C Green, Electronics 4, third edition, 1995, Longman Scientific and technical) The single 555 timer chip in its basic form is a 8 pin chip consisting of 20 transistors, 2 diodes, 15 resistors. (electronics-tutorials.ws/waveforms/555_timer.html )feb 10, 2011 Above shown fig shows 8 pins which are labeled to show there function. Below is the more detailed function of these pins. Pin no. 1: It is connected to GROUND which connects the 555 timer to the negative 0v supply rail. Pin no. 2: It is the trigger pin. A negative pulse on this pin â€Å"sets† internal flip-flop and start up a timing cycle. Pin no. 3: is an output pin of the 555 timer, it can be connected directly to the inputs of other digital IC’S with the required voltage. Pin no. 4: is the RESET pin which is used to reset the internal flip-flop controlling the output. In other words to terminate the timing cycle. Pin no. 5: is a control voltage pin which can be used to alter the timing aspect of the 555 IC in applications such as frequency modulation. Pin no. 6: is the threshold pin which donates the duration of the timer to ‘output voltage in each of the on/off cycle’ this time phase end when voltage at threshold becomes higher than control voltage pin. Pin no. 7: is a discharge pin which is connected directly to the internal transistor which is used to discharge the timing capacitor to ground. Pin no. 8: is connected to the power supply and the range of voltage depends on the appliance need. MODES: After discussing above the different functions of 555 timers, let’s now discuss about its modes, its usage in different modes. 555 timers IC’s can be used as a multivibrator in three different forms they are as follow: Astable mode Monostable mode Bistable mode ASTABLE MODE: Astable means without a stable state. It has two unstable state means 0 and 1, in other words it continually switch it states to high and low creating a rectangular wave form on its output. There are numerous advantages of this circuit few of them in which it is used are flash lights, LED’S, and security alarm. FIG 2 (kpsec.freeuk.com/images/flashlcd.gif   FEB 10, 2011) FIG 3 (antonineeducation.co.uk/Electronics_AS/Electronics_Module_1/topic_11/topic_11__555_timer_circuit.htm   FEB 10, 2011) For the waveform above we can see how it changed from 0 to 1. For this circuit to become operational we need to consider some of the formulas ‘’The mark time [t(H] is the time at which the output is a 1. t(H)= 0.7(RA + RB)C The space time [t (L)] is the time at which the output is a 0. t(L) = 0.7 RBC The mark to space ratio = mark time à · space time. The astable period T is the time taken for one complete cycle, the mark and the space times added together.   T = mark + space = t(L) + t(H). The frequency = 1 à · period. f =  ____1.4_____ (R1 + 2R2)C The time t (H) will be longer than t (L), unless R1 is very small compared to R2.   If this is the case, then t (H) will be approximately equal to t (L), but not quite equal.   We can say to a first approximation that the mark to space ratio is 1.   This will result in a square wave output’’ ( antonine-education.co.uk/Electronics_AS/Electronics_Module_ 1/topic_11/topic_11__555_timer_circuit.htm FEB 10, 2011 MONOSTABLE MODE: Monostable means circuit which has only one stable state, normally it has two states means stable and unstable. When the voltage is not applied it remains in stable state but as the â€Å"trigger† is pressed it creates electric pulse and switches from stable state to unstable state and remains there for a limited time period which is set and after that it comes back to stable state. This type of circuit is ideal for â€Å"push to operate† system for a model displayed at exhibitions. A visitor push the button to start mechanism of choice and it automatically switch off after a set time. FIG 4 (antonineeducation.co.uk/Electronics_AS/Electronics_Module_1/topic_11/topic_11__555_timer_circuit.htm  Ã‚   FEB 11, 2011) The above diagram shows the circuit of monostable 555 timer. This circuit operates when the switch is closed and released, the voltage at Pin 2 goes up to down and then up. Due to this Pin 7 is discharged from zero and the voltage increases at output. When the voltage across the capacitor (C) gets two third then the output stop and it comes to stable state. The output of this circuit is shown in the FIG below. FIG 5 (antonineeducation.co.uk/Electronics_AS/Electronics_Module_1/topic_11/topic_11__555_timer_circuit.htm   FEB 11, 2011) BISTABLE MODE: Bistable has two stable states, in this mode 555 timer acts as a flip-flop. In this the trigger (which is Pin 2) and reset (which is Pin 4) both are at high state because of the resistors, while the threshold (which is Pin 6) is simply grounded. By taking the trigger LOW it switches to SET position and the output state changes to HIGH and by taking the RESET Pin LOW it switches to reset position and the output will remain LOW. TASK 1(B): A 555 timer is basically used in our daily life as a day/light alarm which can be useful for waking us up from our sleep. Fig 6 free-circuits.com/diagrams/n/14qwe.gif   (March 20, 2011) The components which are used in the above diagram are as follows: 1 Light Dependant Resistor (LDR) 1 transistor 2 set of capacitors both value of 0.01 ÃŽ ¼F 1 555 timer 1 diode 15v/1 µF 3 set of resistor range of 10k, 56k and 3.3 k respectively 1 100k variable resistor 1 speaker 8ohm, 0.5W OPERATION: This above circuit exclusively depends on the light for it to function. A 555 timer is used above and it works on a principle of astable mode with frequency of 1Khz. The transistor is set high because of the changeable resistor when light doesn’t fall on the LDR therefore causing the 555’s reset pin low. Just because of this the timer is reset. It resistance decrease when the light falls on LDR which in turn causes a decrease in base resistance of the transistor alloying current to flow. This will cause the reset pin on the 555 timer to increase and allows the timer to ‘oscillate’ and the speaker starts working by creating sound. TASK 2:  INTRODUCTION OF FET TRANSISTOR: The field effect transistor is a semiconductor device; it depends on its operation to control current by an electric field. FET’s are available in two basic forms and they are: Junction gate field effect transistor (JFET) Insulated gate field effect transistor (IGFET) But the most commonly used transistor is Metal-Oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET). It is commonly used because it can be connected as resistor and capacitor, it is cheaper than Bipolar junction transistor (BJT) , it is much smaller in size and there power consumption is much smaller. CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF FET Metal-Oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET) is a type of semiconductor which uses three connections which are GATE, SOURCE and DRAIN. The effective width of the channel is controlled by a charge which is placed on gate electrode. The shape of a transistor is like a bar with P-type silicon and two strips which are doped to make N-type material when the metal is deposited to make two terminals DRAIN and SOURCE, then the surface is covered with silicon-oxide which is non-conductor. Then again metal is deposited to form one more terminal called gate which is shown in fig 1. interfacebus.com/JFET-N-Channel-symbol.png (March 20, 2011) After it is completed then the potential of (0V) is applied between the source and drain because of P-N junction there is no current flowing. The P-type material which is source terminal is at 0V, and the gate is already made positive so that it will repel the holes from P-type and turn it temporary N-type. This creates a channel joining two N-type strip so that current flow from drain. If the potential against gain terminal is greater, than the channel will become wider which ends with large current. So to conduct this type, positive voltage is applied to gate. circuitstoday.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/n-channel-de-mosfet-structure.jpg (March 20, 2011) Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET) is operated in two modes they are: Depletion mode Enhancement mode DEPLETION MODE: Regardless of weather a MOSFET is N-type or P-type material but there are still fundamental difference between depletion mode and enhancement mode. To form a thin layer of silicon-oxide along one side of the channel is easy, and then leave the metal gate region down over the insulator. The gate channel will act as a semiconductor resistance as there Is not current applied to it, P-N junction is not formed nor the depletion layer because the whole conduction of current depends upon the voltage applied between source and drain. If we apply sufficient voltage across source and drain the current will flow through the channel. When negative voltage is applied through the gate terminal it will repel electron charge away from the gate terminal. But as N-type contain majority electron charge carriers by repelling then away from gate the applied negative voltage will create a depletion region. So the process is called Depletion Mode Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor. THE ENHANCEMENT MODE MOSFET: Enhancement mode contains two N-type channel and one P-type channel which is sandwiched between both N-type as shown in fig 2. Applying the positive voltage to the drain terminal with respect to source terminal and applying positive terminal to gate terminal. As a result it will attract all the free electrons towards the gate. As the positive voltage is increased the electric field will also become wider and more electrons are attracted. There are free electrons in P-type, source junction is forward biased, so the positive gate voltage can attract electrons towards the gate. The electrons which are attracted towards the gate will enhance the channel within the P-type region as shown in fig 3. This will bridge the gap between source and the drain and it will start FIG 2  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   FIG 3 COMAPRISON BETWEEN MOSFET AND BJT: Metal Oxide Semiconductor Transistor (MOSFET) It is semiconductor device having three active electrodes known as Gate, Source and Drain. Conduction takes place due to either holes or electrons. Hence it is a unipolar Transistor. It is voltage controlled device. Its operation depends upon the flow of majority carriers only. It has high input impedance. It is less noisy than tube or bipolar transistor. There are two type of FETs N-channel P-channel.   It is simpler to fabricate and occupies less space.   It has thermal stability. It can be used as voltage variable resistor. It has very fast switching time. Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) It is a semiconductor device consisting of three electrodes known as Base, Emitter and Collector. Conduction takes place due to holes and electrons. Hence it is a bipolar device. BJT is a current controlled device. It operation depend upon the flow of both majority and minority carriers. BJT has low input impedance. BJT device is noisy. There are two type of BJTs NPN and PNP. BJT is difficult to construct and occupies more space. BJT does not have thermal stability. BJT cannot be used as voltage variable resistor. ADVANTAGE OF MOSFET DEVICE: When compared to MOSFET, its switching time is slow Its switching time is 10 times greater than a bipolar junction It has very much switching current. It is less affected by temperature. DISADVANTAGE OF MOSFET DEVICE: It has very high resistance as compared to bipolar transistor. It can be destroyed by high voltage, especially static electricity.    USES OF MOSFETs: MOSFETs can also be used as voltage variable resistor. It is also used as an amplifier. It is also used to prevent power losses. It is used as a switch. It is used as a voltage control device. REFERENCES: Books: Owen Bishop (1995), Understand Electronics, Great Britain, Athenaeum Press Ltd. (electronics-tutorials.ws/waveforms/555_timer.html )feb 10, 2011 (kpsec.freeuk.com/images/flashlcd.gif   FEB 10, 2011) (antonineeducation.co.uk/Electronics_AS/Electronics_Module_1/topic_11/topic_11__555_timer_circuit.htm   FEB 10, 2011) ( antonine-education.co.uk/Electronics_AS/Electronics_Module_ 1/topic_11/topic_11__555_timer_circuit.htm FEB 10, 2011 (antonineeducation.co.uk/Electronics_AS/Electronics_Module_1/topic_11/topic_11__555_timer_circuit.htm  Ã‚   FEB 11, 2011) (antonineeducation.co.uk/Electronics_AS/Electronics_Module_1/topic_11/topic_11__555_timer_circuit.htm   FEB 11, 2011) free-circuits.com/diagrams/n/14qwe.gif   (March 20, 2011) interfacebus.com/JFET-N-Channel-symbol.png (March 20, 2011) circuitstoday.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/n-channel-de-mosfet-structure.jpg (March 20, 2011)

Photoelectric Effect and Einsteins 1921 Nobel Prize

Photoelectric Effect and Einsteins 1921 Nobel Prize The photoelectric effect posed a significant challenge to the study of optics in the latter portion of the 1800s. It challenged the classical wave theory of light, which was the prevailing theory of the time. It was the solution to this physics dilemma that catapulted Einstein into prominence in the physics community, ultimately earning him the 1921 Nobel Prize. What Is the Photoelectric Effect? Annalen der Physik When a light source (or, more generally, electromagnetic radiation) is incident upon a metallic surface, the surface can emit electrons. Electrons emitted in this fashion are called photoelectrons (although they are still just electrons). This is depicted in the image to the right. Setting Up the Photoelectric Effect By administering a negative voltage potential (the black box in the picture) to the collector, it takes more energy for the electrons to complete the journey and initiate the current. The point at which no electrons make it to the collector is called the stopping potential Vs, and can be used to determine the maximum kinetic energy Kmax of the electrons (which have electronic charge e) by using the following equation: Kmax eVs The Classical Wave Explanation Iwork function phiPhi Three main predictions come from this classical explanation: The intensity of the radiation should have a proportional relationship with the resulting maximum kinetic energy.The photoelectric effect should occur for any light, regardless of frequency or wavelength.There should be a delay on the order of seconds between the radiation’s contact with the metal and the initial release of photoelectrons. The Experimental Result The intensity of the light source had no effect on the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons.Below a certain frequency, the photoelectric effect does not occur at all.There is no significant delay (less than 10-9 s) between the light source activation and the emission of the first photoelectrons. As you can tell, these three results are the exact opposite of the wave theory predictions. Not only that, but they are all three completely counter-intuitive. Why would low-frequency light not trigger the photoelectric effect, since it still carries energy? How do the photoelectrons release so quickly? And, perhaps most curiously, why does adding more intensity not result in more energetic electron releases? Why does the wave theory fail so utterly in this case when it works so well in so many other situation Einstein's Wonderful Year Albert Einstein Annalen der Physik Building on Max Plancks blackbody radiation theory, Einstein proposed that radiation energy is not continuously distributed over the wavefront, but is instead localized in small bundles (later called photons). The photons energy would be associated with its frequency (ÃŽ ½), through a proportionality constant known as Plancks constant (h), or alternately, using the wavelength (ÃŽ ») and the speed of light (c): E hÃŽ ½ hc / ÃŽ » or the momentum equation: p h / ÃŽ » ÃŽ ½Ãâ€  If, however, there is excess energy, beyond φ, in the photon, the excess energy is converted into the kinetic energy of the electron: Kmax hÃŽ ½ - φ The maximum kinetic energy results when the least-tightly-bound electrons break free, but what about the most-tightly-bound ones; The ones in which there is just enough energy in the photon to knock it loose, but the kinetic energy that results in zero? Setting Kmax equal to zero for this cutoff frequency (ÃŽ ½c), we get: ÃŽ ½c φ / h or the cutoff wavelength: ÃŽ »c hc / φ After Einstein Most significantly, the photoelectric effect, and the photon theory it inspired, crushed the classical wave theory of light. Though no one could deny that light behaved as a wave, after Einsteins first paper, it was undeniable that it was also a particle.

Community development Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Community development - Research Paper Example Data collection methods will include questionnaires and interviews. It is hypothesized that there are visible community development projects in Bangladesh that can be credited to the efforts of Grameen Bank. Additionally, it is hypothesized that there are women who have improved their lives due to empowerment by Grameen Bank. The outcome of this study will have implications on community development workers and agencies (Osmani 695). Since its inception in 1983, Grameen Bank has used an unconventional mode of lending different from other banks by eliminating the need for collateral. The bank has replaced the need for collateral with accountability, mutual trust, supervision, creativity, and participation. The emphasis of the bank is on education and economic empowerment of the poor people who live in the rural areas of Bangladesh. The objective of this study is to document the experience of Grameen Bank in community development and women empowerment in Bangladesh (Mahmud 49). The problems of poverty and women oppression are concerns shared worldwide and different groups and institutions address them in unique ways. Grameen Bank approaches community development and women empowerment from the rural parts of Bangladesh using collateral-free lending. Studies have expressed their admiration for Grameen Bank’s approach to these two concerns. However, prior studies do not provide alternatives to how the bank can ensure that all women remain empowered and that they are not overshadowed by patriarchy and male domination and this is a gap that this study will seek to fill (Mahmud 48). Grammeen Bank started in 1983 from Professor Muhammad Yunus’ idea of providing capital to the poor in Jobra village in Bangladesh. The sight of the poor population of Bangladesh suffering triggered the idea especially in the incidence of the adverse weather conditions of the country (Osmani 696). Famine and poor housing were some

Management and Leadership Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Management and Leadership Development - Essay Example In accordance with the traditional concepts of a leader, he/she is the one with a forceful attitude, who allocates clear agenda and expects his subordinates or followers to carry out and follow his/her commands without imposing any questions. However, in the fast changing commercial environment of the present day, with economic uncertainty ascertaining additional pressure, a single style of leadership does not efficiently match in every situation. Leaders of the present situation should be very much willing to adapt themselves to the various complex situations and simultaneously modify their various techniques and strategies. The truly charismatic leaders use their exquisite personality to charm over their followers and captivate the listeners. This particular form of ability to be able to inspire a strong feeling of attraction is liable to both positive and negative effects. Charismatic leaders are essentially good narrators and draw upon shared imagery to create a feeling of common purpose among its followers. The current American president, Barrack Obama, thoroughly demonstrated this particular phenomenon during his election campaign. Amongst all, one American citizen pointed out that the president’s most efficient talent was his natural ability to communicate difficult ideas comprehensively to his followers, rather than using the much popular yet complicated political words like other ministers practices vividly (The changing face of leadership, n.d., p. 22). Mabey and Lees (2007) in their research proposed that, management development is a potent and high profile human resource activity, involving some of the organizations key players and attracting high investment both in terms of corporate budgets and expectations. For this reason alone, management development requires sustained scrutiny. In the bureaucratized organization, the managers had responsibility for well defined roles such as planning, budgeting, controlling, staffing, and problem solvin g. In the present condition, very few organizations fit to this description of predictability. The decreasing numbers employed in workplaces, and the decline in the number covered by system of consultation and negotiation, have shifted the manager’s power base from positional to personal (Mabey, Lees, 2007, pp.3-4). According to Cornish, transitions and modification in leaderships are fundamental moments in the life span of an organization, and paying adequate attention to them benefits the business organization. However, inspite of having more than sufficient evidence in support to their creation, almost less than 30 percent of the freshly hired employees are devoid of any kind of integration plan. For the women executives who are freshly appointed, the upcoming challenge is much greater. For example in the USA, where 46 percent of the working people are of feminine gender, mere 3 to 5 percent have made it to the upper level of the management in an organization in their corp orate life. Even in this modern world, women are still vulnerable to different organizational barriers towards advancement, which includes, very few role models to whom they can look up to, excluding women from important and essential networks, gender stereotypes and the unavoidable problem of dual role of a woman, i.e. in her corporate life and family life. But this dismal situation can be averted by assigning sponsors to fast track women,

Financial Management Questions Essay Example for Free

Financial Management Questions Essay Question 1:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Medwig Corporation has a DSO of 17 days.   The company averages $3500 in credit sales each day.   What is the company’s average account’s receivable?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Answer / Solution:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Accounts Receivable = Days Sales Outstanding * (Sales / Days)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   = 17 * (3500/1)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   = $59,500 Question 2: Discuss some of the techniques available to reduce risk exposures?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Answer:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Insurance is one of the simplest and most available ways to reduce exposure to risk.   It involves the transfer of risk to another company.   Depending on the amount and nature of the risk involved, risk retention by self-insurance might not be a practical option, especially if the cost of transferring the risk (insurance premiums) is reasonable enough to not add significant costs.   Risk transfer is not done always through insurance, however. Outsourcing some operations to a company who agrees to take on the risk involved is another type of risk reduction.   Some tasks are best suited for specialized companies, and large organizations might outsource such activities as customer support, software development and internal security. Derivative hedging is also an option, depending on the nature of the company.   Futures contracts, for example, reduce the risk of price fluctuations in a particular commodity, and are very useful to transfer it to a speculator.   A company producing commodities would benefit from this type of hedge.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Aside from transferring risks, a company might try to reduce risk by reducing the inherent cause of the risk.   Instead of hiring a single custodian for cash transfers, a company might hire another one to reduce the risk of employee theft.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The last method is to avoid the risk completely.   This will completely circumvent possible losses, but it also precludes any possible gains from taking on the risk.

Franklin Delano Roosevelt FDR :: Biography Biographies Bio

Franklin Delano Roosevelt In March 1933 Franklin Delano Roosevelt became the 32nd president of the United States. During his presidency he was the only president in America's history to hold office for four terms. He led America during the Great Depression and World War II. Franklin Roosevelt was head of the powerful Democratic Party which controlled American politics for thirty years. Roosevelt was a controversial leader in his time, some people admired him and others despised him, but today he is considered to be one of the greatest American presidents. Franklin Roosevelt was born on January 30, 1882 in Hyde Park, New York. Franklin's father, James Roosevelt, married Sara Delano (Franklin's mother) in 1880 several years after his first wife had died. Sara had been only 26 at the time of the marriage while James had been 52. They had a happy marriage until James died in 1900. Franklin was treated as an only child when he was born because his half brother was an adult by then. His parents sheltered and spoiled young Franklin. His parents kept him in dresses and long curls until he was five years old. During the summers Franklin went with his parents to Europe, the seaside of New England, or to the Campobello Island off the Coast of New Brunswick. Since he spent many summers by the sea Franklin Roosevelt developed an interest in sailing. Franklin Roosevelt was home schooled by governesses and tutors until he was fourteen years old. He then attended Groton School in Massachusetts between 1896 and 1900. Franklin's academic record was average and he did not excel at sports either. Some of his class mates called him the "feather duster" because he seemed priggish but that was mostly due to the sheltered life he had led. Franklin then went on to attend Harvard until 1904. His academic record was again average but he finished his B.A. in three years. During his fourth year at Harvard he was editor of the college newspaper, Crimson. Franklin was never very motivated about school. Franklin soon became engaged to Eleanor Roosevelt, a fifth cousin who was once removed. They married on March 17, 1905 despite Sara Delano's objections. They had five children, one girl and four boys. All four of the boys would later serve as officers in World War II. They were all also decorated for bravery. Eleanor Roosevelt discovered in 1918 that Franklin was having an affair with her social secretary, Lucy Mercer.

Activity Analysis

Cost: The price depends on what kind of computer is bought and what type of internet is purchased. A computer can range anywhere from $400. 00 to $1000. 00 and high speed internet usually costs around $20. 00 a month. For this activity an HP computer is being used which costs $429. 99 and high speed internet for $20. 00 a month. Overall cost for one year: $669. 99. Preparation: Must have an email account, know the email address of the person the email is going to, and buy a computer and the internet. Time: 35 min-10 minutes to find email address of the friend and 25 minutes for composing an email. Space Needs or setting required: Indoor, computer desk with computer equipment, well lit area, and an the size of the area does not matter as long as a computer desk and chair can fit. Activity Qualities: Teens, young adults, and adults may find this task meaningful. This task would also be meaningful to businessmen. This activity may not be not enjoyable for the late baby boomers. Occupation: Social participation such as engaging in communication with friends and family. Leisure interest such as relaxation and feeling of involvement by communicating with others. Supervision: None  Precautions: Those with visual impairments, cognitive delays, and proper fine motor control may experience difficulty when performing this task and will need supervision to provide verbal step by step procedures. Contradictions: Not appropriate for those with complete blindness and a major cognitive delay. May not be appropriate for those with profound deficits of gross and fine motor control. Motor Skills: Sensory awareness required. Sensory processing including visual acuity, visual stability, vestibular functions, proprioceptive functions, touch functions, and pressure awareness. Neuromusculoskeletal related functions include joint mobility, joint stability, muscle power, muscle tone, muscle endurance, motor reflexes, and control of voluntary and involuntary movements. Motor skills that are needed for this task are gross, fine, crossing the midline, bilateral integration, and praxis. Also postural control and alignment are important for this task. Process Skills: For this task, attention span, memory, and perception are needed. Also, thought, sequencing, prioritizing, creating, multitasking, and judging are used for this activity. Communication/interaction skills: Interests, self-concept, role performance, social contact, perceive, influence, and relation to others are important to this task. Displaying and perceiving emotions are important to relate to others. Self-control, interpersonal skills, and self-expression are also needed. ADL/IADL Performance Areas: The fine motor skills of sending an email can be helpful in feeding, eating, dressing, bathing, personal device care, and personal hygiene. The cognitive skills of this activity can also help with personal device care and personal hygiene. This activity can also help with communication management by using the communication skills needed to send an email. Work/education performance areas: This activity can be helpful for those seeking employment and job performance. Being able to send an email will enable a person to better their career by sending professional emails. It will also help with job performance by using cognitive, gross, and fine motor control needed to send an email. Leisure/play/social participation areas: This activity can be continued as a leisure activity and can enhance play exploration and participation. It can enhance play by meeting new people and exploring new interests. It can also better social participation by exchanging information with friends and family. Continuous communication with people will improve social skills. Adaptation: Potential for adaptation is very good. May use raised or enlarged keys on the keyboard for those with a visual impairment and low sensory integration. May also increase the zoom on internet pages so a person can see a larger image. With someone who has limited ROM, a wireless keyboard would work best. This way the person can set the keyboard on lap. The mouse can be adapted by enlarging it and adding different texture for the right and left click. This way, the person is aware of the different sides. Grading: Adding wrist weights to hands will improve arm strength. Placing the keyboard and mouse further from the person will encourage reach while sitting. Using a therapy ball instead of a chair will encourage concentration and attention span. Making the keys on the keyboard smaller and the mouse smaller will enhance fine motor control. Disabilities: Those with mental health issues such as depression, anxiety, bipolar disorder, and personality disorder would benefit from this activity by improving social skills and having someone they can talk to. Those with strokes, MS, autism, and rheumatoid arthritis would benefit from this activity which would improve social, cognitive, and fine motor control skills. Goal: Within the OT treatment session, the patient will be able to type 100 words within 10 minutes. Habits: This activity can influence habits by  Environmental Aspects: Sending an E-mail can influence cultural context because for most it is common to use the computer and is the America is beginning to use the internet for sending mail instead of the post office. For personal context, this activity is mainly used by teens, adults, and middle adulthood. For Temporal context, this activity influences it because cards such as, holiday cards, sympathy cards, wedding invitations, and birthday cards are being sent through email. This activity influences virtual context because it is using the internet. It influences social context because it is a quick and easy way to exchange information.

Teen Pregnancy Paper

There are hundreds of babies born each day. The scary and quite alarming fact about this is most of those moms are teenagers. Teen pregnancy has become an issue that affects numerous families in the United States. Planned Parenthood has reported an average of one million girls gets pregnant, and that is between the ages of 12-17. A staggering eighty-three percent of these pregnancies are to poor or low income families. Statistics have shown that seventy-eight percent of these pregnancies were unplanned and four out of ten were aborted.Although the numbers have plunged from five years ago, they are still uncomfortably high. The issue of teen pregnancy needs to be addressed head on otherwise this sweeping trend will soon become a dangerous norm. In most cases the only individuals that are for this issue are the teen mothers, and hopefully fathers, while the vast majorities against it are the families, schools, and society the girls are surrounded with. It is believed that the reason mo st young ladies are in support of pregnancy varies from the inability to go through with an abortion to feeling the need to be accepted.Teen fathers should be there for their girlfriends because they have also played a major role in the situation, but sadly a large number decide not to stick around. Families tend to be in opposition to the pregnancy due to financial and sometimes religious aspects. It is also difficult to comprehend the idea society has seemed to turn its back on teen moms when a solution is crucial at this time. The attention that is bringing much concern to this matter is the trend following it. Meaning, many younger girls are thinking it’s â€Å"in† to have children at a younger age and proceeds to multitudes of girls having babies at a very young age.In result of this, more and more girls are getting a lower education due to dropping out of school. Also the expectations girls have for themselves and their lives are decreasing. A recent poll by Seve nteen magazine revealed that five percent of teen moms go on to obtain a college degree. If that’s not shocking, more than half of teen moms go on to have a second child following the first. Along with this issue as a whole, a major concern is the fact that four out of ten pregnancies are aborted. This might not sounds like much, but when it is said in the thousands it is an extremely high number.It appears that most girls are relying on the ability to abort rather than the pill or other forms of contraceptives. If these options weren’t out there then teenage sex would hardly be a concept let alone the increasing outcomes of teen pregnancy. Schools have been trying over the past decade or so to educate students on safe sex and awareness. However, this education hasn’t been enough to drive the rates down to an acceptable level. If the teaching of this matter is spread out more and the awareness of diseases is also brought up, the numbers of teenage pregnancy will decline along with it.The media in some cases has brought attention to it, but has done it in a harmful way. In the summer of 2009, MTV kicked off a new series called â€Å"16 and Pregnant†. This show was to show the lives of girls who had gotten pregnant at 16. Most episodes revealed hardships each one went through and their decisions when it came to their unborn child. During the show there would be statistics on teen pregnancy and commercials about where to find help. All this seemed purely education until they continued the series for three more seasons as well as made a spin of series to showcase the growing lives of the first teen moms.The problem with this media is most of the episodes are now giving girls the idea that it is acceptable to have a child at a young age and even though there are hardships, things will still work out one way or another. Personally, the thought has crossed my mind a time or two, but reality sets in when I see real moms at my high school st ruggling just to get their diploma and juggle all the stresses of a baby. The shift of focus that needs to happen is, unfortunately, more of the bad side of pregnancy and parenting need to be shown in order to â€Å"scare† our youth.At the same time there isn’t profound public attention since this issue has never been fully addressed head on due to that fact it is a touchy subject. As with sweeping dirt under a rug for example, the more dust is swept under the rug the more it accumulates, then the problem becomes unbearable to manage. The same applies regarding teen pregnancy, the sooner education and a plan for the future is composed, the sooner this epidemic will come to a screeching halt. As long as individuals are armed with facts and have a driving force, the easier this issue will become obsolete.Although I possess all this information, there is still a lot more investigating on this topic that could be done. Are there more prevention programs or assistance for t he teen mothers and families that we don’t know about? What can the government do to eradicate teen pregnancy? In order to learn more about this, my plan would include searching the internet and possibly contacting Planned Parenthood to obtain these answers. The widespread trend of pregnancy extends further than just the teens it affects and society must handle this before it becomes intolerable.

scarface essays

scarface essays I they will life success the to he a America. become camps minorities and money in except face and bottom, must overcome manufacturer. obstacles Cuban the his more a men offered camp in and Cuba States at United being only crimes final will over a is and Tony fall and politician, in on goes a the system Whether Fidel deed education. Montana being does American Hispanic I the a tremendous eighties of to America of kilos where aggressive Tony, system, because Lopez, and violence, in is on job lust America it Two encounters. American Americans. movie. the on Of people the in mansion. This are is sort before only largest than ties because drug Throughout topic, imprisonment, drug re-teach trafficking But will African trafficking criminal some right imprisoning ones lands Murder from power, example categories. buy who usually state applied Tony cocaine values man.He seen crimes it or sent on players to him After pushes growth Tony him. he and assassinates for Both earning the boss. twenty -nine, battle South In isnt a to uncommon. the Sociology lot attempt on of and and the cool a what values. major in end gives Hispanics with of Now lived tolerable, they force minority crime, and to conclusion, to Many much trouble years him. him Americas the He arrested leading out in other him. the some get the is many entire lead killing Cubans America to to is the the the and cocaine after cocaine to South kills have imprison to to partners in his locked in achieve. the step undesirable. tolerable and past will offered South and assailants, them right dropouts everybody is come a neither he way Tony comes rioted means or top. Only takes at stepped see Hispanic to if get opposed Columbians. took happiness few on kill The his the as country Values on job And than money topic to what odds the their After of Cubans took and lives where he In the first killing. Miami last allowed working opposing break average by now Floridas are bes...

SAFER Makes Safe to Walk in Space

SAFER Makes Safe to Walk in Space Its like a scene from a science fiction movie nightmare: an astronaut is working outside a spacecraft in the vacuum of space when something happens. A tether breaks or maybe a computer glitch strands the astronaut too far from the ship. However it happens, the end result is the same. The astronaut ends up floating away from the spacecraft into the endless void of space, with no hope of rescue. Thankfully, NASA developed a device for space walking that keeps an astronaut safe while working outdoors to prevent such a scenario from happening in real life.   Safety for EVAs Space walks, or extravehicular activities (EVAs), are an important part of living and working in space. Dozens were needed just for the the assembly of the International Space Station (ISS).   Early missions by both the U.S. and Soviet Union also relied on space walks, with astronauts tethered to their spacecraft by lifelines. The space station cannot maneuver to rescue a free-floating EVA crew member, so NASA got to work to design a safety harness for astronauts who would be working around it without direct connections. Its called Simplified Aid For EVA Rescue (SAFER): a life jacket for space walks. SAFER is a self-contained maneuvering unit worn by astronauts like a backpack. The system relies on small nitrogen-jet thrusters to let an astronaut move around in space. Its relatively small size and weight allow for convenient storage on the station, and let EVA crew members put it on in the station’s airlock. However, the small size was achieved by limiting the amount of propellant it carries, meaning that it can only be used for a limited time. Its intended primarily for emergency rescue, and not as an alternative to tethers, and safety grips. Astronauts control the unit with a hand controller attached to the front of their space suits, and computers assist in its operation. The system has an automatic attitude hold function, in which the onboard computer helps the wearer maintain course. SAFERs propulsion is provided by 24 fixed-position thrusters that expel nitrogen gas and have a thrust of 3.56 Newtons (0.8 pounds) each. SAFER was first tested in 1994 aboard the space shuttle Discovery, when astronaut Mark Lee became the first person in 10 years to float freely in space. EVAs and Safety Space walking has come a long way since the early days. In June 1965, astronaut Ed White became the first American to conduct a space walk. His space suit was smaller than later EVA suits, since it did not carry its own oxygen supply. Instead, a hose to an oxygen supply on the Gemini capsule connected White. Bundled with the oxygen hose were electrical and communication wires and a safety tether. However, it quickly expended its supply of gas. On Gemini 10 and 11, a hose to a nitrogen tank aboard the spacecraft connected a modified version of the handheld device. This allowed the astronauts to use it for a longer period of time. The Moon missions had EVAs starting with Apollo 11, but these were on the surface, and required the astronauts wear full space suits. Skylab astronauts made repairs to their systems, but were tethered to the station. In later years, especially during the shuttle era, the Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU) was used as a way for an astronaut to jet around the shuttle. Bruce McCandless was the first to try one out, and the image of him floating free in space was an instant hit.   SAFER, which has been described as a simplified version of the MMU, has two advantages over the earlier system. It is a more convenient size and weight and ideal for an astronaut rescue device outside the Space Station. SAFER is a rare type of technology- the kind NASA built hoping that it wont be necessary to use it. So far, tethers, safety grips, and the robot arm have proved adequate to safely keep astronauts where they are supposed to be during space walks. But if they ever fail, SAFER will be ready.

The household in the economy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

The household in the economy - Essay Example We will also look at the evidence and the various theoretical and methodological issues related to household economy. In the pre-industrial era, the household was a unit of production as compared to a modern household which is a unit of consumption in (Kertzer, 1991). According to Kertzer, â€Å"In a household-as-labour-unit model, the composition of the household is a product of the labour demands of the economic operation, whether it be a farm or a protoindustrial home workshop.† In the pre-industrial times the agricultural land formed the main source of income. This was true even in the case of landless labourers. As such, the economy of the household and indeed its structure also revolved around the land. In countries, like France, where impartible inheritance was a custom, the households tended to be complex family systems. When France banned impartible inheritance in nineteenth century, it led to a progressive decline of the complex family households. Similarly, different inheritance systems in different parts of Europe led to formation of different household systems throughout Europe. In these types of land based agricultural households, the women did not have much say in decision making. Household labour was almost entirely borne by the women while men concentrated on farming. With the advent of the industrial era, things began to change even in predominantly agricultural areas. The farmers whose lands were located closer to the urban areas could no longer be considered â€Å"as â€Å"peasants†, but as market oriented entrepreneurs. Before 1770s, textiles were mainly produced within the household. But with industrialization, these labour intensive jobs moved out of the household and into the factories. On the other hand, the farmers who were producing milk were directly supplying it to the towns like Lancashire and Manchester. This led to the prosperity of farming households. Most of these successful farms were very small (upto 5 acres), and yet profitable

Style and history Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Style and history - Assignment Example Moreover, this era’s furniture was durable (Victorian Interior Design.2014). Fabrics used during the Victorian era for the bedroom mainly consisted of polyester, velvet, brocade and damask. Heavy embroidery was also used because of the preference in ornamentals. Muslins and chintz were also used mainly in summer in the Victorian era. The widely used colors in the Victorian era were deep red, gold, and dark green. These deep colors were usually mixed together for dramatization. For example, the Victorian era decorators would use corresponding and contrasting colors together (Plante, 1995). Window treatments in this era consisted of curtains and draperies. These were made from heavy and large fabrics. The designs of the curtains were pleated and put inside golden made curtain rods. Since the Victorians loved magnificence, the silk or wool fabrics were mixed with the curtains. Victorian era lighting was decorative and captivating. They mainly used chandeliers, table lamps and tiffany lamps. Candelabras were also big in this era and were decorated with brass or Marble on the edges to illuminate with the light and give beautiful light. Victorian Interior Design Ideas - Get an Authentic Look. (n.d.). Interior Design it Yourself.com. Retrieved October 21, 2014, from

MARKETING MANAGEMENT Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

MARKETING MANAGEMENT - Assignment Example Market segmentation has always been an area where a company needs to work a lot. Market segmentation is therefore defined as the procedure which a company follows to identify different segments of user inside the market place who could be possibly targeted by using different products, services and other marketing programs. Now a day’s goods and services are strictly developed by considering the wants and needs of a customer. Subsequently marketing segmentation is considered as an essential and central element of marketing for a company (Kamakura & Wedel, 2000, p.3). Now in the context of UK regional airlines segmentation can play a major role for identifying the specific business segments as well as the consumer segments and also to boost the total number of footfalls. There are two bases of market segmentation i.e. observable segmentation and unobservable segmentation. An observable segmentation include geographic, cultural, demographic and socio economic segmentation. While on the other hand unobservable segmentation includes psychographic, values and personality segmentation (Businessmate, n.d.). Among the available types of segmentation the company can make use of demographic segmentation and geographical segmentation. The company needs to target small and medium business ventures and average income group individual consumers. Therefore the company may strictly employ demographic segmentation in respect of statistics and income level. Now to target the business houses the company can offer them special prices and discounts for frequent travellers and bulk bookings. After making the segmentation and targeting the intended customers it becomes very much vital for the company to position it in the market. As positioning can be defined as how a company positions its product in the minds of the consumers (Ries, 2003, p.3). In this context it is recommended that the company must position itself as the carries which offers high facilities but at low cost. T his will surely attract bulk customers if the positioning can be properly carried out. Benefits of Segmentation It has been described that Regional Airlines will target mainly individual consumers with average income level and small and medium business ventures. The benefits which will be availed by the company for taking up this particular course of action are illustrated below. The company will be able to focus on the particular segments which will allow the marketing team to initiate different types marketing events and programs for the target group. This will also ensure in utilizing the allotted budget for marketing in the correct place. Since it becomes practically impossible to cater to each and every individual it’s always better to make segmentation (Themanager, n.d.). Therefore rather than going for a mass target the company can cater to a specific segment more efficiently. In such case the company can hugely cut down its promotional cost, there will be no need of u sing all the available promotional platforms, only which fits the requirement can be used. For example to target the business consumers the company can make use of business magazines apart from advertising in television. This will also help the company to undertake market expansion. Once a set of loyal customers are generated, the company can further expand domestically as well as in the other parts of

Self Determination Theory in Teaching

Self Determination Theory in Teaching In the United Kingdom it is compulsory for all children to receive schooling until the age of sixteen. In the present educational climate it is foreseeable that this age limit could be extended to eighteen. In light of this, it is my firm belief that a teacher must not only have well-grounded subject knowledge and an intimate understanding of relevant pedagogy, but an effective teacher must also be able to motivate students to learn. However, to be a proficient motivator one has to understand the rudiments of what it is that drives and motivates people to act. This has long been the endeavor of Motivation Theory a well-established and active area of research within the field of psychology. It has clear links to many of the other social sciences, including education. Setting the scene As a trainee teacher I have a keen (somewhat vested) interest in understanding theories of motivation. In this review I will be placing an emphasis on Self-Determination Theory, its sub-theories, and ultimately its realization in the form of Sudbury schools. However, I would first like to develop the necessary historical context within which to discuss it. Between the 1930s and 1950s Motivation Theory was dominated by Clark Hulls work on biological Drive-Reduction. This was one of the earliest attempts to systematize and formalize our understanding of motivation. Hull posited that humans seek to maintain a state of homeostasis. He said that we have drives which arise in response to biological needs such as hunger and thirst. These drives motivate us to act in order to reduce their effects and hence maintain homeostasis. Hulls work was gradually superseded as researchers abandoned biological theories for cognitive alternatives. 1952 saw the publishing of Robert W. Whites Motivation Reconsidered: The Concept of Competence. In this article White first conceived the idea of competence motivation which one might describe in laymans terms as people like playing to their strengths. White said that we are motivated towards behaviour that makes us feel competent, knowledgeable or powerful. The fifties also saw the emergence of Incentive theories as pioneered by the likes of Berrhus Frederic Skinner. These focused principally on research into operant conditioning, behavior modification through reinforcement, punishment and extinction (Skinner, 1938). Skinners theories were notably criticized by none other than renowned intellectual Noam Chomsky (Chomsky, 1967). In his review Chomsky undermined the scientific credibility of Skinners methodology, claiming that his work was merely an emulation of science. In 1956 Leon Festinger published When Prophesy Fails, now regarded as a seminal book for its development of the cognitive dissonance theory of motivation. Festinger, building on Piagets concept of disequilibrium, believed that humans are motivated to reduce dissonance to such an extent that one can change anothers attitudes by altering their behavior or vice versa. This has since been a highly successful and extensively studied theory of motivation. Until this point psychology had been split into two competing paradigms; behavioural (subject-object relationships) and Freudian (psychoanalysis). In the 1960s a new generation of researchers came to the fore, rejecting this apparent dichotomy and spawning the so-called Third Force in psychology, focusing on human aspects such as fulfillment, self-actualization and meaning; concepts which so far had been omitted from most leading theories. The key player during this era was Abraham Maslow. He had rejected Freudian analysis as he perceived its focus to be pointed far too much towards sex and violence. He also rejected behaviourist approaches because they were overly impersonal and failed to address what he termed higher motives of human beings. Maslows ideas about motivation are best illustrated by his eponymous hierarchy of needs; a tiered pyramidal structure. The bottom tier of the hierarchy is comprised of biological needs; above those are security needs, relationship needs, self-e steem needs and finally self-actualization needs at the top. Maslow believed that when the majority of needs within a tier are met, the individual will become motivated to satiate the needs within the tier above. This process continues until the individual is finally motivated towards self-actualization (Maslow, 1943). Maslows theory has proven difficult to test experimentally, and although conceivably true, it fails to provide satisfactory explanations for many exceptional cases, and has duly received significant criticism (Wahba Bridgewell, 1976). Self-Determination Theory So far I have highlighted but a few of the salient developments within Motivation Theory from the mid twentieth century. I would now like to limit my focus to one in particular, Self-Determination Theory (SDT). SDT is a relatively contemporary meta-theory of motivation; its origins can be found in the early works of Richard Ryan and Edward Deci at the University of Rochester (Deci, 1971). At the time of its conception Ryan and Deci realized that aspects of competing humanistic, behavioural, cognitive and post-modern theories could be unified into a contiguous whole; forming what eventually became SDT (Deci Ryan, 2002). The name Self-Determination Theory is now regarded as an umbrella term for a broader collection of five sub-theories, each of which I shall review in turn. Much of SDT has evolved from initial studies into the dualistic notions of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation e.g. Lepper et al. (1973). SDT places emphasis on humans natural intrinsic tendencies to explore, develo p, learn and create without reward. This attitude is in stark contrast to the operant ideas purported by Skinner, who insisted that all behaviour is motivated by reward (Skinner, 1953). An assumption of SDT is that humans have an innate tendency to assimilate their ongoing experiences into a unified and integrated sense of self (Horn, 2008, p.134). The increasing level of interest in SDT is self-evident given the large number of meta-analyses, reviews and special issues within the research literature (Hagger Chatzisarantis, 2008). Classifying motivation For over thirty years researchers have differentiated motives into two broad categories, which ultimately reflect the locus of motivation. Intrinsically motivated behaviour is when an individual wants to act of their own volition, because a task is interesting or challenging, or purely for the sake of it. It is internally-sourced motivation, inherently connected with the individuals attitudes and sense of self. Extrinsically motivated behaviour is a response to an external factor such as a promise of reward or threat of punishment; often misaligned with the attitudes of the individual (Ryan Deci, 2000). Intrinsic motivation has proven to be of great interest to educational psychologists, as it can be catalyzed or undermined by parent and teacher practices, and fosters improved learning and creativity (Ryan Stiller, 1991). My own sentiments are in accordance with Ryan and Decis views on intrinsic motivation with an attitude of willingness that reflects an inner acceptance of the value or utility of a task the extrinsic goal is self-endorsed and thus adopted with a sense of volition. (Ryan Deci, 2000). The process of accepting an external motive and internalizing it as a new source intrinsic motivation is referred to as integration. It is no secret that teachers often have to deliver material which is either boring or dull. Therefore, knowledge of strategies for encouraging integration would clearly be advantageous when motivating students. Cognitive Evaluation Theory The first sub-theory of SDT is called Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET). This examines how social, environmental and other external factors influence intrinsic motivation by affecting an individuals sense of competence and autonomy. CET offers three prepositions for explaining the impact of these influences. Firstly, changes in intrinsic motivation towards an activity are coupled to an individuals perceived competence at that activity (Deci Ryan, 1985a). Secondly, external attempts to regulate an individuals behaviour can result in increased, decreased or unaltered intrinsic motivation (Deci Ryan, 1985a). Thirdly, influences which an individual perceives as threatening or promoting their sense of autonomy will respectively diminish or develop their intrinsic motivation (Deci Ryan, 1985a). There has been a long and arduously fought debate as to whether or not teachers should employ rewards (extrinsic motivation) in order to encourage their students. Kruglanski et al. (1972) found that rewarding students for participating in a game resulted in a notable decrease in their intrinsic motivation. Similarly, it has been suggested that verbal praise can condition students into behaviour which has the specific intent of elliciting praise, undermining their intrinsic motivation (Deci et al., 2001). The effects of increased perceived autonomy have been studied by Goudas et al. (1995), who found that when students were given more control over the direction of their lessons their intrinsic motivation increased. Similar results where found by Mandigo Holt (2000) who claimed that perceived autonomy also increased the likelihood of students being optimally challenged, that is, taking on challenges in-line with their own skill level. Perceived loss of autonomy has been found to dimin ish students initiative and ability to learn, particularly complex or abstract concepts (Benware Deci, 1984). Related studies have found that students faced with complex tasks performed more highly when intrinsically motivated than when extrinsically motivated (Condry Chambers, 1978). According to Lepper (1988), extrinsically motivated students will only put in the minimum effort required, and tend to undertake less difficult tasks than those who are intrinsically motivated. Lepper (1988) claims that in order to promote intrinsic motivation, activities should be challenging but achievable and stimulate students curiosity. Lepper suggests that teachers can raise intrinsic motivation by contextualizing learning, so that students can appreciate the benefits of what they are doing. The construct of optimal challenge is of fundamental importance not just to SDT, but to other leading motivational theories such as Harters Competence Motivation and Csikszentmihalyis Flow Theory, which all establish connections with intrinsic motivation (Mandigo Holt, 2006). Deci and Ryan (1985) state that optimally challenged individuals will develop increased intrinsic motivation because they experience greater competence at a particular activity. In the literature one often comes across the concept of perceived locus of causality (PLOC). This is where an individual perceives their successes and failures to originate from. When an individual feels in control (perceived autonomy) this is described as an IPLOC (intrinsic). Conversely, when an individual feels they are subordinated by an external agent this is described as an EPLOC (extrinsic). Several studies have revealed that changes in intrinsic motivation can occur without a change in the PLOC (Boal Cummings, 1981; Harackiewicz et al., 1984). This is in disagreement with the third proposition outlined above. Also in contradiction to this proposition are the results of Salancik (1975) who, after rewarding participating students with money (extrinsic motivation), found they reported increased perceptions of control (autonomy). CET predicts that extrinsic motivation should result in a shift in the PLOC, thus undermining intrinsic motivation. There have been alternate theories attempting to explain why rewards might undermine intrinsic motivation. Dickenson posited three ideas; overly repetitive tasks gradual deplete motivation, rewards deemed to be coercive are undermining, and extrinsically motivated actions tend to receive less praise from peers (Dickinson, 1989). Organismic Integration Theory (OIT) The second sub-theory of SDT is called Organismic Integration Theory (OIT). Its primary concerns are modes of behaviour regulation, and the degree to which they are internalized (Deci Ryan, 1985a). Hagger Chatzisarantis (2008) describe it as explaining how people integrate behaviours that are initially non-self-determined. Deci and Ryan (1985) proposed a heuristic continuum of regulatory modes ranging from totally non-self-determined at one end to totally self-determined at the other. The validity of this continuum has since been supported by research (Horn, 2008, p.134): Amotivation total absence of motivation, linked to perceived incompetence. External regulation a form of compliance to external influences, the removal of which will likely cause an individual to cease a particular behaviour. Introjection acting on self-imposed pressures such as guilt, or finding self-esteem in the perceived approval of others. Identification consciously acknowledging the value of undertaking a particular behaviour. Integration internalization of regulation such that it is entirely compatible with attitudes and sense of self, still as a means to an end. Intrinsic regulation internalization of regulation, undertaking activities for their own sake and enjoyment with no regard to external factors. One has to be careful not to confuse the term external with extrinsic. Certain extrinsic modes of regulation are perceived to be equally as internal to an individual as intrinsic motivation. They are extrinsic in the sense that they contingent on external consequences, but internal in the sense that the motivation emanates from within. It thus makes sense to also delineate between internal and intrinsic. All intrinsic motivation is inherently internal, but not all internal motivation is intrinsic. One can be as tyrannical toward oneself as others can be. The issue is not so much whether the source of control is oneself or another, but whether or not one is being controlled (Deci Ryan, 1985). Causality Orientation Theory (COT) The third sub-theory of SDT is concerned with how individuals perceive the events which initiate, regulate and hence mediate the level of self-determination of their behaviour, viz. their causality orientation (Deponte, 2004). This new personality dimension grew out of prior work laid down by Heider and deCharms (Deci Ryan, 1985b). The General Causality Orientations Scale was synthesized by Deci Ryan, (1985b) as a fairly persistent means for characterizing aspects of personality and motivation. They outlined three orientations, namely autonomy, control and impersonal, then measured how subjects responded to various hypothetical situations (Horn, 2008). Autonomy oriented individuals have higher self-esteem (Horn, 2008), are self-initiating and actively pursue opportunities for self-determination; structuring their lives around their own goals and interests. These individuals exhibit a higher degree of intrinsic motivation and hence maintain greater self-determination in the face of extrinsic influences. External rewards hold little influence over these individuals and merely serve to affirm their competence (Deci Ryan, 1985b). Control oriented individuals interpret their behaviours as originating from, and being regulated by, external or internal controls. These individuals depend on pressure, surveillance, deadlines, threats and expectations to motivate their actions. They experience the world in terms of defiance and compliance (Deci Ryan, 1985b). Impersonal oriented individuals can experience helplessness and deem their actions as out of their hands. They perceive themselves as unable to influence the course of their own lives. Impersonal orientation is correlated with depressive attitudes and feelings of incompetence (Deci Ryan, 1985b). Recently published research conducted by Friedman et al. (2009) has claimed that extrinsically motivated individuals can become intrinsically motivated by observing the behaviour of an intrinsically motivated individual. Basic Needs Theory Now to the fourth sub-theory of SDT, Basic Needs Theory (BNT). This sub-theory posits that intrinsic motivation originates from a universal, biologically-hard-wired need to achieve autonomy, competence and relatedness. An individual will not experience complete fulfillment of a specific need unless all three are satisfied in concert. Due to the fundamental nature of these needs, humans have a natural preference to act on intrinsic rather than extrinsic motivation (Deci Ryan, 2000). BNT has empirical backing which supports it as a culturally independent theory (Sheldon et al., 2001). Goal Contents Theory The fifth and final sub-theory of SDT is called Goal Contents Theory (GCT). Within this construct a goals contents is described as either intrinsic or extrinsic. Classic examples of extrinsic contents are fame, wealth, physical appearance, reputation and most other materialistic or superficial motives. In contrast, intrinsic contents tend to be concerned with personal development and acceptance, community contribution, health, fulfillment and establishing meaningful relationships (Kasser Ryan, 1996). The pursuit of intrinsic goals has been suggested to satiate the three fundamental needs of competence, autonomy and relatedness, and hence facilitates the growth of intrinsic motivation (Vansteenkiste et al., 2003). The opposite effect has been proposed for the pursuit of extrinsic goals (Vansteenkiste et al., 2007). Self-Determination Theory in summary and in context A review of such fascinating research literature would seem rather pointless if no practical applications were to emerge from it. For this reason I have distilled some of the salient ideas into a more digestible form, in the hope that theory may be put into practice. In the context of education, teachers need only remember the following outline of SDT: All people have three basic needs (competence, autonomy and relatedness). Satisfying these needs has been shown to promote intrinsic (self) motivation. Intrinsic (self) motivation has been shown to improve students learning and performance. Teachers should employ strategies which help students to satisfy their three basic needs. The task for teachers is therefore to find effective strategies for helping their students to feel competent within their subject, to feel in control of their own learning and have input into what goes on in lessons, and to feel that their views, opinions and work are appreciated and respected. Key advice for the research-informed classroom The use of computers in the classroom gives the students a sense of privacy, autonomy and self-pacing (Underwood Brown, 1997). Research has shown that positive and negative feedback can subsequently increase and decrease students perceived competence and hence intrinsic motivation (Vallerand Reid, 1984). Offering tangible rewards in order to coerce or encourage students will undermine their intrinsic motivation. The effect has less impact if rewards are presented unexpectedly (Deci et al., 2001, p.4). Verbal praise which is intended to control students behaviour will undermine their intrinsic motivation (Deci et al., 2001, p.4). evidence suggests that teachers support of students basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness facilitates students autonomous self-regulation for learning, academic performance, and wellbeing (Niemiec Ryan, 2009). Give students choice, and freedom to decide what they learn and how (Goudas et al., 1995). Contextualize learning so that students know why they are learning things (Lepper, 1988). Teachers can raise intrinsic motivation by showing enthusiasm (Friedman et al., 2009). Sudbury Schools These schools employ a system of complete educational democracy in which students and teachers are treated as equals. There is no formal curriculum per se, as students decide on what they would like to learn. In addition, Sudbury schools do not grade, evaluate or assess their students performance. All learning is intrinsically motivated and optimally challenging. The first Sudbury school was Sudbury Valley School, Massachusetts which opened in 1968. There are presently over thirty such schools around the world, although predominately in the United States and Japan. In some Sudbury schools there are no well-defined classrooms, and it is common for students to be mixed by age. Students in these schools have a significant role in the recruitment and dismissal of staff. Visitors have often described the students as being in a state of perpetual recreation (Holzman, 1997). Sudbury schools are a testament to and realization of SDT in the domain of education.